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Quantum electrodynamics
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Quantum electrodynamics
In particle physics, quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics. In essence, it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved. QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism giving a complete account of matter and light interaction.
In technical terms, QED can be described as a perturbation theory of the electromagnetic quantum vacuum. Richard Feynman called it "the jewel of physics" for its extremely accurate predictions of quantities like the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the Lamb shift of the energy levels of hydrogen. It is the most precise and stringently tested theory in physics.
The first formulation of a quantum theory describing radiation and matter interaction is attributed to Paul Dirac, who during the 1920s computed the coefficient of spontaneous emission of an atom. He is credited with coining the term "quantum electrodynamics".
Dirac described the quantization of the electromagnetic field as an ensemble of harmonic oscillators with the introduction of the concept of creation and annihilation operators of particles. In the following years, with contributions from Wolfgang Pauli, Eugene Wigner, Pascual Jordan, Werner Heisenberg and Enrico Fermi, physicists came to believe that, in principle, it was possible to perform any computation for any physical process involving photons and charged particles. However, further studies by Felix Bloch with Arnold Nordsieck, and Victor Weisskopf, in 1937 and 1939, revealed that such computations were reliable only at a first order of perturbation theory, a problem already pointed out by Robert Oppenheimer. At higher orders in the series infinities emerged, making such computations meaningless and casting doubt on the theory's internal consistency. This suggested that special relativity and quantum mechanics were fundamentally incompatible.
Difficulties increased through the end of the 1940s. Improvements in microwave technology made it possible to take more precise measurements of the shift of the levels of a hydrogen atom, later known as the Lamb shift and magnetic moment of the electron. These experiments exposed discrepancies that the theory was unable to explain.
A first indication of a possible solution was given by Hans Bethe in 1947. He made the first non-relativistic computation of the shift of the lines of the hydrogen atom as measured by Willis Lamb and Robert Retherford. Despite limitations of the computation, agreement was excellent. The idea was simply to attach infinities to corrections of mass and charge that were actually fixed to a finite value by experiments. In this way, the infinities get absorbed in those constants and yield a finite result with good experimental agreement. This procedure was named renormalization.
Based on Bethe's intuition and fundamental papers on the subject by Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman and Freeman Dyson, it was finally possible to produce fully covariant formulations that were finite at any order in a perturbation series of quantum electrodynamics. Tomonaga, Schwinger, and Feynman were jointly awarded the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work in this area. Their contributions, and Dyson's, were about covariant and gauge-invariant formulations of quantum electrodynamics that allow computations of observables at any order of perturbation theory. Feynman's mathematical technique, based on his diagrams, initially seemed unlike the field-theoretic, operator-based approach of Schwinger and Tomonaga, but Dyson later showed that the two approaches were equivalent. Renormalization, the need to attach a physical meaning at certain divergences appearing in the theory through integrals, became one of the fundamental aspects of quantum field theory and is seen as a criterion for a theory's general acceptability. Even though renormalization works well in practice, Feynman was never entirely comfortable with its mathematical validity, referring to renormalization as a "shell game" and "hocus pocus".
Neither Feynman nor Dirac were happy with that way to approach the observations made in theoretical physics, above all in quantum mechanics.
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Quantum electrodynamics
In particle physics, quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics. In essence, it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved. QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism giving a complete account of matter and light interaction.
In technical terms, QED can be described as a perturbation theory of the electromagnetic quantum vacuum. Richard Feynman called it "the jewel of physics" for its extremely accurate predictions of quantities like the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the Lamb shift of the energy levels of hydrogen. It is the most precise and stringently tested theory in physics.
The first formulation of a quantum theory describing radiation and matter interaction is attributed to Paul Dirac, who during the 1920s computed the coefficient of spontaneous emission of an atom. He is credited with coining the term "quantum electrodynamics".
Dirac described the quantization of the electromagnetic field as an ensemble of harmonic oscillators with the introduction of the concept of creation and annihilation operators of particles. In the following years, with contributions from Wolfgang Pauli, Eugene Wigner, Pascual Jordan, Werner Heisenberg and Enrico Fermi, physicists came to believe that, in principle, it was possible to perform any computation for any physical process involving photons and charged particles. However, further studies by Felix Bloch with Arnold Nordsieck, and Victor Weisskopf, in 1937 and 1939, revealed that such computations were reliable only at a first order of perturbation theory, a problem already pointed out by Robert Oppenheimer. At higher orders in the series infinities emerged, making such computations meaningless and casting doubt on the theory's internal consistency. This suggested that special relativity and quantum mechanics were fundamentally incompatible.
Difficulties increased through the end of the 1940s. Improvements in microwave technology made it possible to take more precise measurements of the shift of the levels of a hydrogen atom, later known as the Lamb shift and magnetic moment of the electron. These experiments exposed discrepancies that the theory was unable to explain.
A first indication of a possible solution was given by Hans Bethe in 1947. He made the first non-relativistic computation of the shift of the lines of the hydrogen atom as measured by Willis Lamb and Robert Retherford. Despite limitations of the computation, agreement was excellent. The idea was simply to attach infinities to corrections of mass and charge that were actually fixed to a finite value by experiments. In this way, the infinities get absorbed in those constants and yield a finite result with good experimental agreement. This procedure was named renormalization.
Based on Bethe's intuition and fundamental papers on the subject by Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman and Freeman Dyson, it was finally possible to produce fully covariant formulations that were finite at any order in a perturbation series of quantum electrodynamics. Tomonaga, Schwinger, and Feynman were jointly awarded the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work in this area. Their contributions, and Dyson's, were about covariant and gauge-invariant formulations of quantum electrodynamics that allow computations of observables at any order of perturbation theory. Feynman's mathematical technique, based on his diagrams, initially seemed unlike the field-theoretic, operator-based approach of Schwinger and Tomonaga, but Dyson later showed that the two approaches were equivalent. Renormalization, the need to attach a physical meaning at certain divergences appearing in the theory through integrals, became one of the fundamental aspects of quantum field theory and is seen as a criterion for a theory's general acceptability. Even though renormalization works well in practice, Feynman was never entirely comfortable with its mathematical validity, referring to renormalization as a "shell game" and "hocus pocus".
Neither Feynman nor Dirac were happy with that way to approach the observations made in theoretical physics, above all in quantum mechanics.
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