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Special education in the United Kingdom
Special education in the United Kingdom
Special education in the United Kingdom
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Special educational needs (SEN), also known as special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) in the United Kingdom refers to the education of children who require different education provision to the mainstream system.

Meaning

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The meaning of SEN is set out in the Education Act 1996[1] and was amended in the Special Educational Needs and Disability Bill of 2001.[2] Currently, a child or young person is considered to have SEN if they have a disability or learning difficulty that means they need special educational provision. Special educational provision means that the child needs support that would not generally be provided to a child of the same age in a mainstream school.[3]

Some examples of SEN include:[4][5]

Support available

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There are numerous types of support available depending on the child or young person's disability. Some support offered includes:[4]

  • Following a different learning programme from the rest of the class
  • Extra help from a teaching assistant or the class teacher
  • Extra supervision in the classroom or at break time
  • Working in a smaller group
  • Support to communicate with other pupils
  • Help with personal care (such as eating or using the toilet)
  • Encouragement to complete tasks the pupil struggles with

Public examinations

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Some support available for children with SEN include:[6]

  • Extra time to complete examinations
  • Rest breaks
  • Alternative formats for exam papers
  • Use of a reader
  • Use of a scribe
  • Use of a live speaker for exams that include audio recordings
  • Use of a prompter
  • Use of a communication professional (a person who can translate questions into British Sign Language or International Sign Language)
  • Use of a practical assistant
  • Use of a word processor
  • Completing examinations in a separate room or venue from other candidates at the school
  • Exemption from certain parts of qualifications.
[edit]
"SENCO" redirects here. For the geographical place, see Senco.

The SEN systems vary in each nation of the United Kingdom.

England

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The current regulations for SEN are set out in the Children and Families Act 2014.[7][3] Different levels of support are given to children depending on how much support is required. Most children with SEN are given school-level support, known as SEN support.[8] An Education, Health and Care Plan (EHCP) is given to children and young people who are considered to have complex needs. They can be used for children and young people aged 2–25.[9][10] Children and young people with an EHCP are entitled to a personal budget.[10] Every school must have a Special Educational Needs Co-Ordinator (SENCO), who is responsible for overseeing the support of pupils with SEN.[10] Children with SEN in the UK can attend mainstream or special schools, but legally, local authorities are obliged to educate children in mainstream schools where possible.[3] If a family feels that their child is not receiving sufficient support, they may take their local authority to the Special Educational Needs and Disability Tribunal to appeal any decisions the local authority has made on a child's support.[7][3]

Local offer

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A Local Offer (or LO) is a statement detailing the pattern of support which a local authority expects to be available for children and young people with special educational needs (SEN) and/or disabilities within their area. It must include information about education, health and care provision. It should also tell families about training, employment and independent living options available for young people with special educational needs and/or disabilities. In accordance with the SEND Code of Practice, every local authority must publish a Local Offer.[11] The Local Offer or LO [12] should

  • provide clear, comprehensive, accessible and up-to-date information about the available provision and how to access it,
  • make provision more responsive to local needs and aspirations by directly involving disabled children and those with SEN and their parents, and disabled young people and those with SEN, and service providers in its development and review.[13]

Scotland

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In Scotland, the term additional support needs is used instead of SEN. As well as children with disabilities, this also encompasses children who may need support for reasons other than disability, such as children who are being bullied or who are in foster care.[14] The Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004 redefined the law relating to the provision of special education to children with additional needs by establishing a framework for the policies of inclusion and generally practicing the "presumption of mainstreaming" in education.[15] Children with complex needs who require support from external organisations are given a co-ordinated support plan.[16] Families who are not satisfied with the support given are entitled to take the education authority Additional Support Needs for Scotland Tribunal.[15][16]

Northern Ireland

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Regulations for SEN in Northern Ireland are currently governed by the Special Educational Needs and Disability Act (Northern Ireland) 2016.[17] In Northern Ireland, there are five stages of SEN support.[18] Stages 1 to 3 are known as school-based stages. Stage 1 is when concerns are first raised about a child having SEN, and support is given within the classroom, such as differentiated work or different teaching strategies.[18] If the child's difficulties improve at this stage, the child is no longer classed as having SEN.[18] However, if they do not improve, the child will be moved to stage 2.[18] At stage 2, advice from the child's GP or the school doctor is sought and an education plan is drawn up by the SENCO, which describes the difficulties the child has and the support they need.[18] If the child does not make good progress at stage 2, they move on to stage 3. At stage 3, external specialists, such as educational psychologists are involved in the child's support.[18] If a child does not make progress while on stage 3, they are referred to stage 4. Stage 4 is also known as Statutory Assessment.[18] Children who have very significant disabilities are referred straight to Statutory Assessment without having to go through the school-based stages.[18] Stage 5 is when a SEN statement is issued. The SEN statement sets out the child's difficulties and the support they require, as well as which school the child should attend (this can be a mainstream or special school).[18]

History

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Local authorities became responsible for the education of Deaf children and blind children in 1893. The education of children with disabilities became mandatory in the Education Act 1918. The prevailing attitude at the time was that disabled children should be sent to residential schools rather than attending mainstream schools.[19] The Education Act 1944 created provision for children with disabilities to receive "special educational treatment" in special schools.[20] Children were required to have a medical assessment to be eligible for this.[21] Some children were classified as uneducable, and were not required to attend school.[22] The 1970 Education (Handicapped Children) Act removed uneducable category, which allowed all disabled children to receive an education.[22][23] SEN statements were introduced in 1978 and parents of children with disabilities were given the right to appeal decisions made by local authorities about decisions on their child's education [20] The 1981 Education Act stated that children should be taught in mainstream schools whenever possible.[22] The role of the Special Needs Coordinator emerged in 1982 [Special Education 1] to audit mainstream special provision, raise the expectations of fellow teachers and advocate for disabled people even during educational cutbacks. The 1993 Education Act made SENCOs mandatory for all schools and set out guidelines for identifying pupils with SEN and assessing their needs.[20] The 2001 Special Educational Needs and Disability Act outlawed discrimination against disabled pupils in schools, colleges and other education settings.[20][22] It also introduced the Special Educational Needs and Disability Tribunal.[20]

Prior to the Children and Families Act 2014, there were three levels of support in England and Wales:

  • school action- for pupils with relatively low-level needs who can be supported with additional support provided within school, such as the use of specialist teaching materials in lessons.[24]
  • school action plus- for pupils who need additional support from an external support service. For example, a speech and language therapist or an educational psychologist.[24]
  • SEN statement-for pupils with more complex needs.[25]

In the English law case of Skipper v Calderdale Metropolitan Borough School (2006) EWCA Civ 238, the Court of Appeal allowed the appellant could claim against her former school for failing to diagnose and treat her dyslexia.[26]

Criticisms

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Underfunding

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Funding provision for pupils with Special Education Needs and Disabilities, (SEND) has been criticised as inadequate. Some councils claimed to be unable to carry out their statutory duties towards SEND children due to lack of funding from the central government. Educators also complained that they cannot educate SEND pupils as effectively as they would like due to lack of funding.[27]

In 2019 the Education Select Committee of the House of Commons published a report stating reforms introduced in 2014 had been badly implemented damaging many SEND pupils. Children had to do without support they needed, which affected their mental health as well as their education, children experienced anxiety, depression and self-harm, and children as young as nine had attempted suicide. Children's families had to try and cope with a bureaucracy. The report also criticised a funding shortfall and called for greater accountability in the system. More rigorous inspection systems were called for together with clear consequences following failure. Parents and schools should be able to appeal directly to the DfE if Local Authorities did not meet their legal obligations. School inspections should focus more on SEND, social care ombudsmen and Local Authorities should have greater powers. Robert Halfon MP said, "The DfE cannot continue with a piecemeal and reactive approach to supporting children with Send. Rather than making do with sticking plasters, what is needed is a transformation, a more strategic oversight and fundamental change to ensure a generation of children is no longer let down." Kevin Courtney of the National Education Union said, "Schools and local authorities want to provide the best possible support for SEND pupils, but the tools needed are generally no longer available due to cuts to local services." The Local Government Association stated, "Councils support the reforms set out in the Children and Families Act in 2014, but we were clear at the time that the cost of implementing them had been underestimated by the government."[28] In some cases parents withdrew their children from school resulting in action from authorities to force attendance. A group of parents mounted a legal challenge to this.[29]

Exclusions and off-rolling

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Children with SEN are much more likely to be formally excluded from school or off-rolled.[30] Off-rolling is where a pupil is removed from a school's register, often shortly before GCSEs are due to be taken, which can cause the child's education to be discontinued.[31] There have been claims that children with SEN who are unlikely to achieve the national target of five GCSEs at grades 4 to 9 are being excluded or off-rolled to raise a school's position in league tables. Anne Longfield, the children's commissioner, said "I have become more and more convinced that some schools are seeking to improve their overall exam results by removing vulnerable children from the school roll...sadly this can include children with Send, who have no option but to go into inappropriate alternative provision or home education."[30]

Over-identification

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There have been claims that affluent families will push for their child to be identified as having SEN so that the child can access additional support when the child may not genuinely have any disability. The number of children identified as having SEN has increased. Figures published in 2009 showed that 17.8% of pupils in English schools have SEN an increase from 14.9% in 2005, leading to claims that schools are labelling too many children as having SEN.[32] Lorraine Petersen, the former chief executive of the National Association of Special Educational Needs, has said "they [parents] feel a label will give the child and perhaps the family additional support that they may not get without it; access to benefits, for instance, or support with exams or a place in a specialist setting."[33] In other cases, schools have been accused of identifying non-disabled children as having SEN to hide poor teaching standards.[34]

Under-identification

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Conversely, some people argue that there is a problem with children with disabilities not being identified as needing additional support. This is said to be especially difficult for low-income families, who may not be able to afford private diagnostic assessments for conditions such as dyslexia. Bernadette John, the SEN director of The Good Schools Guide, says: "There's a good reason why middle-class parents are better able to get a special needs diagnosis for their child: cash. There is a dire shortage of educational psychologists in local authorities, and children can expect a wait of at least a year to see one for a diagnosis."[35]

See also

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Notes

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Special education in the United Kingdom

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from Grokipedia
Special education in the refers to the statutory provisions made for children and young people with special educational needs (SEN), defined as learning difficulties or disabilities requiring educational support beyond that generally available in mainstream schools. In , the primary framework is established by the Children and Families Act 2014, which integrates education, health, and social care through assessments leading to Education, Health and Care (EHC) plans for those with the most significant needs, covering ages 0 to 25. Equivalent systems exist in devolved nations—such as the Additional Support for Learning framework in and the Additional Learning Needs system in —but with variations in assessment processes and entitlements. As of the 2024/25 academic year, over 1.7 million pupils in —representing 19.6% of the —have been identified with SEN, including 5.3% with EHC plans, reflecting a sustained rise driven by increased diagnoses of conditions like autism and speech difficulties. The system promotes inclusion in mainstream settings where feasible, supplemented by specialist teaching assistants, interventions, or placement in special schools for severe cases, though local authorities face chronic shortfalls estimated to exceed £2.5 billion annually. Pupils with SEN consistently lag academically, attaining equivalents 3.7 to 7.1 grades below non-SEN peers, underscoring persistent attainment gaps. Notable achievements include moderate evidence from evaluations showing SEN provisions enhance skills, socioemotional development, and abilities for targeted pupils. However, controversies center on the efficacy of mandatory inclusion policies, with peer-reviewed analyses revealing flawed evidence for academic gains from mainstream integration and indications that specialized settings yield better outcomes for certain disabilities, particularly ones, amid criticisms of resource dilution in underprepared mainstream classrooms. Systemic pressures, including backlogs and parental dissatisfaction—evident in one-third seeking assessments—highlight implementation failures despite legislative intent.

Definition and Scope

Definition of Special Educational Needs

In , the legal definition of special educational needs (SEN), commonly referred to as SEND (Special Educational Needs and Disabilities) in policy frameworks such as the SEND Code of Practice, is set out in section 20 of the Children and Families Act 2014, which states that a or young person has SEN if they have a learning difficulty or which calls for special educational provision to be made for them. A learning difficulty is defined as having a significantly greater difficulty in overcoming learning difficulties than the majority of others of the same age, or possessing a disability that prevents or hinders the or young person from making use of educational facilities of a kind generally provided for others of the same age in mainstream schools or post-16 institutions. For children under compulsory school age but over two years old, or under two years old, the definition adapts to account for developmental stages, specifying that special educational provision means support additional to or different from what is normally available in early years settings. Special educational provision itself is provision that is additional to, or otherwise different from, the educational support normally available to children or young people of the same age in maintained schools, pupil referral units, or post-16 institutions. This framework emphasizes needs arising from inherent learning challenges or rather than solely environmental factors, though temporary difficulties due to English as an additional language or recent behavioral issues are explicitly excluded unless they stem from an underlying learning difficulty or . The originates from and updates section 312 of the Education Act 1996, which similarly identified SEN as a learning difficulty requiring provision beyond the ordinary. While the SEN terminology and core definition apply in , , and [Northern Ireland](/page/Northern Ireland)—with [Northern Ireland](/page/Northern Ireland) describing it as a learning problem or making education harder than for most peers of the same age— employs the distinct concept of additional support needs under the Education (Additional Support for Learning) () Act 2004, focusing on any requirement for extra support to benefit from , regardless of labeling as a "need." This variation reflects devolved policies, but the English definition remains the foundational model influencing UK-wide discourse on . In , which educates the largest proportion of pupils, 1,657,000 school pupils were identified with special educational needs (SEN) in the 2024/25 , comprising 19.6% of the total pupil population. This figure reflects a 5.6% increase (93,700 additional pupils) from 2023/24, driven by rises in both , health, and care plans (EHCPs, at 5.3% of pupils) and SEN support without EHCPs. Across the , prevalence varies due to devolved systems and differing definitions: reported 43,885 pupils with additional learning needs (ALN) or SEN in maintained schools (9.5% of pupils) as of January 2025; Scotland identifies additional support needs (ASN) in approximately 37% of pupils under broader criteria; and reports SEN in 22% of the school population. Demographic patterns show SEN identification is markedly higher among boys, who constitute 72% of pupils with EHCPs and are roughly twice as likely as girls to receive such support. Prevalence peaks around age 9 in , decreasing after compulsory school age, and pupils with SEN are disproportionately eligible for free school meals, indicating links to socio-economic disadvantage. Ethnic breakdowns reveal variations: after adjusting for factors like year group, gender, and disadvantage, Black Caribbean and mixed White/Black Caribbean pupils in show higher SEN rates relative to peers, while some studies in find White pupils over-represented among identified cases. Trends indicate rising identification rates UK-wide, with England's overall SEN proportion climbing from about 14% in 2015/16 to nearly 20% by 2024/25, alongside a doubling of EHCPs from 2.8% of under-16s in 2010 to 5.2% in 2025. Northern Ireland has seen a 50% increase in statements of SEN over five years to 2024, while Wales maintains lower but stable rates amid its transition to an ALN framework. These increases may reflect improved detection, policy shifts toward formal plans, and post-pandemic effects, though official data do not attribute causation.

Framework in

The legal framework for special educational needs (SEN) in is governed by Part 3 of the Children and Families Act 2014, which reformed and expanded provisions originally outlined in the Education Act 1996. The 2014 Act shifted from standalone "statements of special educational needs" under the 1996 legislation to integrated Education, Health and Care (EHC) plans, extending coverage to young people up to age 25 and incorporating health and social care needs alongside . This reform aims to provide a holistic, person-centered approach, with local authorities holding primary responsibility for conducting EHC needs assessments and issuing plans where a child's learning difficulty or necessitates provision beyond standard school offerings. A child or young person is deemed to have SEN if they have a learning difficulty arising from a significantly greater difficulty in learning than peers of the same age, a hindering use of facilities normally provided, or a difficulty anticipated upon reaching age despite no current provision. Local authorities must ensure identification through a graduated system: initial SEN support in early years settings, , or colleges, escalating to a formal EHC if support proves insufficient. EHC plans, once issued, specify outcomes, provision, and placement—prioritizing mainstream unless it contravenes parental wishes or is incompatible with efficient for others or resource efficiency. The statutory SEND Code of Practice (2015), issued under section 77 of the 2014 Act, details implementation, emphasizing multi-agency cooperation among , (via clinical commissioning groups), and social care services. Schools and settings bear a general duty to admit children with SEN, supported by the 1996 Act's provisions for special educational provision in mainstream or special schools. Funding flows through local authority high needs blocks in dedicated schools grant allocations, with top-up funding for EHC plan provision based on assessed needs. Parents and young people hold to request assessments, participate in decisions, and appeal to the First-tier Tribunal (Health, Education and Social Care Chamber) on refusals or plan contents, with required before appeals. The framework mandates personal budgets as an option within EHC plans from April 2015, enabling direct payments for provision control. Oversight includes joint commissioning by local authorities and health bodies, with the monitoring compliance via local area SEND inspections.

Framework in Wales

The framework for additional learning needs (ALN) in Wales is governed by the Additional Learning Needs and Education Tribunal (Wales) Act 2018, which establishes a statutory system to support children and young people aged 0 to 25 with learning difficulties or disabilities requiring additional learning provision. This Act replaces the prior special educational needs (SEN) framework under the Education Act 1996 and associated codes, shifting from category-based assessments to a needs-led approach emphasizing individualized support across early years, , and post-16 training. The reform aims to unify processes previously divided between school-aged SEN statements and separate assessments for those over 16 with learning difficulties, extending provision to a broader age range and promoting earlier intervention. Under the Act, a or young person has ALN if they have a significantly greater difficulty in learning than the majority of peers of the same age, or a hindering use of educational facilities, necessitating provision beyond that generally available in mainstream settings. Local authorities bear primary responsibility for identifying ALN, deciding on the need for an Individual Development Plan (IDP)—the core document outlining tailored provision—and ensuring its review at least annually or upon significant changes. IDPs integrate educational, elements where relevant, replacing SEN statements and learning difficulty assessments, with statutory IDPs required for those with profound needs and non-statutory plans for moderate ones. Schools and further education providers must collaborate in IDP preparation, prioritizing the 's views and parental involvement, while health boards contribute to assessments for co-occurring medical conditions. The Additional Learning Needs Code for Wales 2021 provides statutory guidance on , mandating inclusive practices in mainstream settings unless contrary to the child's interests, and outlining duties for local authorities to secure sufficient specialist provision, including special schools. Appeals against local authority decisions on IDPs or provision are handled by the , which has jurisdiction over disputes involving children up to age 25, broadening access compared to the prior SEN tribunal limited to school-aged cases. Funding for ALN is allocated through local authority budgets, with grants supporting transformation; however, has faced delays, with full rollout for all learners targeted for September 2025, following phased introduction for new cases since September 2021 in maintained schools and some non-maintained settings. As of 2024, transitional arrangements allow dual operation of old and new systems to avoid gaps, amid reports of resource strains in high-need areas.

Framework in Scotland

In Scotland, the framework for additional support in education is governed primarily by the Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004, as amended by the 2009 Act, which establishes a system centered on identifying and addressing barriers to learning rather than categorizing specific disabilities. This legislation defines a or young as having additional support needs if they require extra assistance—beyond that generally provided—to overcome learning barriers and achieve their potential, encompassing factors such as disabilities, conditions, social or emotional issues, or family circumstances. Education authorities bear statutory duties to assess needs, provide tailored support, keep provision under review, and involve parents or carers in decision-making processes. For children with complex or multiple additional support needs arising from factors likely to persist for more than one year and requiring significant input from the education authority alongside at least one other agency, a Co-ordinated Support Plan (CSP) is mandated as a formal, legally binding document outlining long-term objectives, required support, and agency responsibilities. CSPs must be reviewed at least annually or upon significant changes, with parents able to request establishment, review, or mediation; disputes can escalate to the Additional Support Needs Tribunal Scotland. Unlike England's , Health and Care Plans, CSPs apply selectively to multi-agency cases, promoting flexibility while ensuring coordination. The framework integrates with the Getting It Right For Every Child (GIRFEC) national approach, enacted through the Children and Young People (Scotland) Act 2014, which emphasizes child via early intervention, multi-agency collaboration, and the Named Person scheme to identify support needs proactively. GIRFEC aligns with additional support provisions by focusing on holistic indicators—such as , healthy, achieving, nurtured, active, respected, responsible, and included (SHANARRI)—to inform individualized planning without mandating universal formal plans. A presumption of mainstream underpins the system, as stipulated in section 15 of the Standards in Scotland’s Schools etc. Act 2000, directing authorities to place children with additional support needs in mainstream settings unless parents specify otherwise or satisfactory provision cannot be made due to capacity, resources, or the child's needs adversely affecting others. This promotes inclusion while allowing exceptions, with local authorities required to publish annual mainstreaming strategies detailing progress toward accessible provision. Statutory guidance updated in 2017 reinforces these elements, urging evidence-based assessments and transitions support up to age 18 or beyond for young people in .

Framework in Northern Ireland

The framework for special education in Northern Ireland is primarily established by the Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1996, which defines a child as having special educational needs (SEN) if they have a significantly greater difficulty in learning than the majority of children of the same age, or a that prevents or hinders access to the standard curriculum, necessitating special educational provision beyond what is normally available in mainstream schools. This Order mandates the Education Authority (EA) to identify, assess, and provide for children with SEN, emphasizing collaboration with schools, health, and . The Special Educational Needs and Disability (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 amends the 1996 framework to strengthen inclusion , requiring schools to make reasonable adjustments to avoid against disabled pupils and prioritizing mainstream placement unless incompatible with the child's needs or those of others. The subsequent Special Educational Needs and Disability Act (Northern Ireland) 2016 introduces further reforms, including duties for boards of governors and the EA to develop personal learning plans (PLPs) for certain pupils and provisions for , though not all sections—such as annual EA SEN plans—have been fully commenced as of 2025 due to legislative delays. Guidance is provided through the on the Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs (effective from 1998, supplemented in 2005), which outlines a graduated five-stage process for assessment and provision: Stage 1 involves school-based interventions by the class teacher; Stage 2 escalates to the school's special educational needs coordinator (SENCO); Stage 3 incorporates external agency support; Stage 4 prompts a request for statutory assessment by the EA; and Stage 5 results in a formal Statement of Special Educational Needs specifying required provision, which the EA must secure. Parents hold rights to request assessments, appeal decisions to the SEND , and participate in reviews, with the EA bearing ultimate responsibility for and delivery. Ongoing reforms, outlined in the SEN Reform Agenda and five-year Delivery Plan published in February 2025 by , aim to transition to a three-stage system focused on earlier intervention, integrated and support, and measurable outcomes through a new draft and regulations consulted on in 2020-2021 but pending full implementation. This shift seeks to address systemic pressures, such as rising demand for statements (over 20,000 active as of recent data), by emphasizing evidence-based, needs-led provision over rigid categorization, while maintaining statutory protections. The Outcomes Framework for 2025-2030 targets four strategic goals: improved identification, equitable access, better transitions, and enhanced pupil outcomes.

Historical Development

Early Developments and Institutionalization (Pre-1944)

The earliest efforts to provide specialized education in the United Kingdom arose in the late through philanthropic initiatives targeting children with sensory impairments. In 1760, Thomas Braidwood founded the first school for deaf children in , utilizing oralist methods to instruct pupils in speech and lip-reading within a segregated residential setting. This was followed by the establishment of public asylums, including the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb Poor in 1792, which admitted indigent children and emphasized vocational training alongside basic literacy. For blind children, the School for the Indigent Blind opened in in 1799, introducing braille precursors and manual skills to foster self-sufficiency, though access remained limited to urban poor supported by voluntary subscriptions. These institutions marked the inception of institutionalized , prioritizing isolation from mainstream society to address perceived ineducability in ordinary settings. The witnessed expansion driven by voluntary societies and medical , extending provision to physical and intellectual disabilities amid industrialization's exposure of child . Asylums for "idiots" and "imbeciles" proliferated from the 1840s, such as the Earlswood Asylum established in 1847, where custodial care overshadowed academic instruction, reflecting prevailing views of mental handicap as hereditary degeneracy requiring segregation to prevent social burden. By mid-century, experimental day classes for "" children emerged under local school boards, but compulsory elementary education under the 1870 Forster Act largely bypassed disabled pupils, who numbered in the thousands and were often confined to workhouses or uncertified homes without systematic schooling. Institutional growth accelerated post-1870, with over 100 specialized facilities by 1900, funded variably by charities and poor rates, yet coverage remained incomplete, excluding many rural or mildly impaired children. Legislative milestones institutionalized by mandating segregated provision, though enforcement relied on local discretion and medical certification. The 1893 Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act imposed duties on school boards to identify and educate sensory-impaired children separately, leading to certified classes and residential placements. The 1899 Elementary Education (Defective and Epileptic Children) Act authorized exclusion of "defective" pupils—defined as those incapable of ordinary instruction due to mental or physical conditions—from mainstream schools, while enabling special classes or institutions, primarily targeting urban epileptic and intellectually impaired youth. The 1918 Fisher Education Act extended compulsory attendance to age 14 for all "handicapped" children, inclusive of physical, mental, and epileptic categories, spurring a near-doubling of special schools to over 300 by 1921, yet perpetuating a of diagnosis and institutional removal rather than inclusive adaptation. Pre-1944 practice thus entrenched categorization by impairment type, with residential segregation dominant for severe cases and limited state oversight yielding inconsistent outcomes.

Post-War Categorization and Expansion (1944-1980)

The imposed a statutory duty on local education authorities (LEAs) to identify and provide special educational treatment for children classified as handicapped, marking a shift toward systematic provision. This Act categorized handicapped children into eleven medically defined groups, reflecting a dominant that emphasized individual impairments over environmental factors: blind, partially blind, deaf, partially deaf, educationally sub-normal, epileptic, physically handicapped, those with speech defects, maladjusted, delicate, and children with dual or multiple handicaps. Ascertainment relied on medical examinations by LEA officers, determining placement in special schools, special classes within mainstream schools, or hospital-based education where appropriate. Post-war reconstruction facilitated expansion, with LEAs required to develop plans for increased special school provision under the Act's framework. By the mid-1950s, Ministry of Education pamphlets documented growing enrollment in categories like educationally sub-normal (ESN) and physically handicapped pupils, driven by better ascertainment and up to age 15. The number of special schools in rose to approximately 1,591 by 1978, accommodating around 2% of school-aged children in segregated settings, though severe cases—deemed "uneducable" under Section 57 of the 1944 Act—remained excluded from formal education until the Education (Handicapped Children) Act 1970 integrated them into LEA responsibilities. This era entrenched categorization, prioritizing segregated specialist environments based on presumed causal links between medical diagnoses and educational deficits, with limited empirical scrutiny of mainstream integration efficacy. By the late , accumulating evidence of over-ascertainment in categories like ESN—often conflating socio-economic disadvantage with innate sub-normality—prompted the appointment of the Warnock Committee in 1974, whose 1978 report critiqued rigid medical classifications and advocated broader definitions of encompassing 20% of children, though implementation extended beyond 1980.

Shift to Needs-Based Approaches and Inclusion (1981-Present)

The Warnock Report, published in 1978, recommended reorienting special education from rigid disability categories to a broader concept of special educational needs (SEN) defined by difficulties in learning due to interactions between the child's abilities and environmental factors, estimating that 14-20% of children might require some additional support while only about 2% would need intensive statutory intervention. This framework influenced the Education Act 1981, which imposed statutory duties on local education authorities (LEAs) to identify and assess children with SEN, issue formal statements specifying required provision, and prioritize integration into ordinary schools unless incompatible with the child's needs or those of others. The Act granted parents rights to information, involvement in assessments, and appeals to statements, marking a departure from pre-1981 medical-model categorizations toward individualized, needs-led planning across England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Building on this, the saw incremental refinements, including the on the Identification and Assessment of SEN (1994), which outlined staged assessments and school-based support before statements, alongside the Education Act 1996, which consolidated SEN duties and emphasized parental partnerships. The Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 () advanced inclusion by prohibiting against disabled pupils and requiring LEAs and schools to plan for increased mainstream participation, supported by a revised in 2001 that promoted multi-agency collaboration. These measures reflected growing policy emphasis on , influenced by international norms, though implementation varied due to resource limitations and uneven LEA capacity. Post-devolution from 1999, needs-based approaches persisted but adapted regionally, with a stronger presumption toward inclusion. In England, the Children and Families Act 2014 replaced statements with Education, Health and Care Plans (EHCPs) for 0-25-year-olds, integrating education, health, and social care needs, enabling personal budgets, and mandating local offers of support, as detailed in the 2015 SEND Code of Practice which favored mainstream settings absent evidence of detriment. Wales's Additional Learning Needs and Education Tribunal (Wales) Act 2018 shifted terminology to additional learning needs (ALN), introducing Individual Development Plans (IDPs) to replace statements and statements incrementally by 2026, aiming for earlier intervention and rights-based appeals. Scotland's Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004 established an additional support for learning (ASL) system, presuming mainstream education unless against the child's best interests, with Coordinated Support Plans for multifaceted needs affecting approximately 40% of pupils by the 2020s, guided by 2017 statutory frameworks. Northern Ireland retained statements under the Special Educational Needs and Disability (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 and SEND Act 2016, enhancing inclusion duties, multi-agency planning, and tribunal access while addressing assessment delays. Across jurisdictions, these evolutions prioritized causal analysis of needs over labels, yet empirical reviews highlight persistent challenges, including inflated formal identifications (e.g., EHCPs rising to over 500,000 in England by 2023) and mixed evidence on academic gains from inclusion versus specialized settings.

Provision and Support Mechanisms

Assessments and Individualized Plans

In , the process for assessing special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) typically begins with early identification and support within mainstream settings, escalating to a formal , and Care (EHC) needs assessment if a or young person up to age 25 requires provision beyond that available through school-based SEN support. Local authorities must conduct an EHC assessment upon request from parents, schools, or health services if there is of significant needs, gathering input from educational psychologists, health professionals, and social care within a 6-week decision period and 16 weeks total for the assessment. If issued, an EHC plan—a legally binding document—outlines the 's specific educational, health, and social care needs, desired outcomes, and required provision, including any special school placement; plans are reviewed annually or more frequently if needed, with amendments possible via formal processes. In Wales, under the Additional Learning Needs (ALN) and Education Tribunal (Wales) Act 2018, assessments identify learners of compulsory school age or up to 25 with ALN, replacing the prior SEN statements; local authorities or further education institutions conduct needs assessments upon request, involving multi-agency input to determine if an Individual Development Plan (IDP) is necessary, which specifies support strategies, outcomes, and provision tailored to barriers to learning. The system, phased in from September 2021 and fully operational by August 2025, emphasizes person-centered planning with learner and family involvement, reviewed at least annually, though implementation challenges have included delays in assessments due to resource constraints. Scotland employs a staged intervention approach for Additional Support for Learning (ASL) under the Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004, where schools initially assess and provide support through internal processes before escalating to local authority involvement; parents or young people can request specific assessments, such as psychological or medical evaluations, to identify barriers arising from learning difficulties, disabilities, or English as an additional language. For pupils with complex, multi-agency needs, a Coordinated Support Plan (CSP) may be developed, detailing coordinated provision across , health, and care services, with mandatory reviews every 12 months; unlike , CSPs are not universal but targeted, covering approximately 1-2% of pupils with the most intensive requirements. In , statutory assessments for special educational needs (SEN) are triggered by a request to the Education Authority, leading to a multi-disciplinary of a child's needs if school-based support proves insufficient, as outlined in the on SEN (updated 2020); this process, which can take up to 26 weeks, informs the issuance of a Statement of SEN specifying needs, provision, and objectives. Statements, reviewed annually, mandate local authorities to secure outlined support, including therapy or specialized equipment, though appeals to the SEND Tribunal are available if refused; the system retains statements despite pressures to modernize, with assessments prioritizing evidence from educational psychologists and health trusts.

Support in Mainstream Settings

In , mainstream schools are legally required to support pupils with special educational needs (SEN) through inclusive practices, as outlined in the Children and Families Act 2014 and the SEND 2015, which presume placement in mainstream settings unless a special school better meets the child's needs. This support operates via a graduated approach involving assessment of needs, planning tailored interventions, implementation ("do"), and regular review, typically managed at the school level without external agency involvement for initial stages. For pupils without an Education, Health and Care Plan (EHCP), schools provide SEN support using internal resources, affecting 1,284,284 pupils or 14.2% of all pupils in the 2024/25 academic year, a 3.7% increase from the prior year. This includes adaptations such as differentiated teaching, small-group interventions, or access to specialist equipment, coordinated by a designated Special Educational Needs Coordinator (SENCO), a qualified teacher role mandated in every mainstream school since 2009, responsible for policy development, staff training, and parental liaison. Class teachers retain primary responsibility for daily provision, with teaching assistants (TAs) often delivering one-to-one or group support, though research indicates TAs' effectiveness depends on structured deployment and training to avoid displacing teacher-led instruction. Pupils requiring more intensive support receive EHCPs, statutory documents integrating education, health, and social care provisions, with 56.2% of the 482,640 EHCP holders (5.3% of all pupils) educated in mainstream s in 2024/25, up from 54.4% the previous year. Local authorities fund these placements, which may include additional therapies or specialist staff, but schools must demonstrate reasonable adjustments under the to ensure access. Overall, approximately 80% of pupils with SEND attend state-funded mainstream schools, reflecting a policy emphasis on inclusion amid rising demand—SEN identification has increased 29.5% since 2016—yet persistent attainment gaps, over twice as wide for SEND pupils compared to free school meal-eligible peers by secondary exit, underscore implementation challenges. Evidence-based guidance from the Education Endowment Foundation recommends five strategies for mainstream efficacy: fostering a supportive ethos, prioritizing high-quality for all, deploying targeted interventions like for reading difficulties, building partnerships with parents and specialists, and using data to monitor progress, with meta-analyses showing such approaches can narrow gaps when consistently applied. Similar mechanisms exist across the , though devolved administrations vary: emphasizes Additional Support for Learning plans in mainstream via the Education (Additional Support for Learning) () Act 2004, while and mandate graduated responses akin to England's SEN support.

Special Schools and Specialized Provision

Special schools in are state-funded institutions dedicated exclusively to educating pupils with special educational needs (SEN), primarily those requiring Education, Health and Care Plans (EHCPs) due to moderate to severe or complex needs that cannot be adequately met in mainstream settings. These schools numbered approximately 1,050 in 2024, accommodating over 160,000 pupils in the 2023/24 , representing about 1.8% of all school pupils but a growing proportion amid rising EHCP demand. Pupils are typically admitted following local authority assessment and naming of the school in their EHCP, with curricula adapted to individual needs, including modified elements, therapy integration, and vocational training for older students. Special schools are categorized by primary need types, such as severe learning difficulties (SLD), profound and multiple learning difficulties (PMLD), autistic disorders, speech and needs, sensory impairments, physical disabilities, or social, emotional, and (SEMH) challenges. For instance, schools for PMLD emphasize sensory stimulation and basic , while those for SEMH incorporate behavioral support frameworks. Governance varies: most are local authority-maintained, but increasing numbers operate as academies or free schools, with independent special schools approved under section 41 of the Children and Families Act 2014 for EHCP placements. Funding derives from dedicated schools grant and high-needs block allocations, though per-pupil costs average £20,000-£30,000 annually, exceeding mainstream equivalents due to specialized staffing and facilities. Beyond full special schools, specialized provision includes additionally resourced provisions (ARPs) or specialist bases within over 1,168 mainstream schools, offering reserved places for specific SEN types like autism or hearing impairment, allowing partial integration with mainstream peers. Non-maintained special schools, often charities, and post-16 specialist colleges provide further options for complex cases, with independent providers serving around 5-10% of EHCP pupils. In devolved nations, analogous structures exist—e.g., additional support needs schools in or specialist units in —but with varying emphases on integration versus segregation, funded through devolved education budgets. These provisions prioritize small class sizes (often 6-10 pupils) and multidisciplinary teams, including therapists and psychologists, to address causal factors like cognitive impairments or sensory deficits underlying SEN.

Transitions to Adulthood and Examinations

Education, Health and Care Plans (EHCPs) in , introduced under the Children and Families Act 2014, extend support for young people with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) up to age 25 if necessary to achieve specified outcomes, such as preparation for adulthood including , , and community participation. Local authorities must review EHCPs annually from age 16, focusing on transitions to , apprenticeships, or adult services, with planning beginning as early as to align with statutory guidance in the SEND . This extension aims to bridge gaps in readiness for adult life, but implementation varies, with reports highlighting delays in adult social care transitions between ages 16 and 18, often involving multi-agency coordination for health, housing, and support. Empirical data indicate suboptimal outcomes for young people with SEND post-transition. In 2020, only 5.9% of young people with SEND secured paid upon leaving education, reflecting persistent barriers like limited work experience placements and mismatched skills training. Broader statistics show a gap of approximately 30% in the as of 2024, with young disabled individuals, including those with SEND histories, facing three times higher risks of long-term compared to non-disabled peers, exacerbated by lower qualifications and socioeconomic factors. Fifteen years after , individuals with SEND exhibit significantly lower earnings and rates, underscoring causal links to early educational categorizations and inadequate transition support rather than inherent incapacities. For public examinations such as and , students with SEND qualify for access arrangements under Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) regulations, provided evidence from assessments demonstrates a need arising from , , or temporary . Common adjustments include 25% extra time, use of word processors or laptops (with prior approval and evidence of normal classroom use), separate invigilation, and amanuenses (scribes) for those unable to write independently due to conditions like or physical impairments. Applications require formal evidence, such as reports, and must be processed online for each qualification level; for instance, progression from to necessitates renewed applications for extra time. Usage has risen annually, with increasing approvals reflecting broader SEN identifications, though critics question the surge in arrangements without corresponding rises in underlying . These measures aim to level the playing field by accommodating functional limitations, but their effectiveness depends on consistent application and avoidance of over-reliance that might hinder skill development.

Empirical Outcomes and Effectiveness

Academic Attainment Data

Pupils with special educational needs (SEN) in exhibit substantially lower academic attainment across key stages compared to peers without identified SEN, with gaps widest for those with Education, Health and Care (EHC) plans. At , the average Attainment 8 score—a composite measure of and equivalent qualifications across eight subjects—for pupils with EHC plans stood at 14.8 in recent national data, while those receiving SEN support averaged 33.7; this contrasts with an overall pupil average of approximately 46. Similar disparities appear in Progress 8 scores, which estimate progress from to 4: -1.13 for EHC pupils and -0.45 for SEN support pupils in 2023/24. Achievement of the standard benchmark—grades 5 or above (equivalent to high C under old grading) in English and —further highlights the divide: approximately 7.5% of EHC pupils and 22.3% of SEN support pupils met this threshold, compared to over 45% nationally. These patterns hold across entry to the (EBacc) suite of subjects, where SEN pupils show lower participation and attainment averages. Gaps are largest for needs like intellectual disabilities, which correlate with the most pronounced underperformance in core subjects.
SEN ProvisionAttainment 8 Average% Grade 5+ in English & Maths GCSEsProgress 8 Score (2023/24)
EHC Plan14.8~7.5%-1.13
SEN Support33.7~22.3%-0.45
No SEN~46~45%Baseline (0)
Data derived from aggregated Department for Education statistics; national averages approximate for non-SEN pupils based on 2022/23 figures. At , SEN pupils similarly underperform, with a high concentration (82% in state-funded schools) of those working below expected standards in reading, writing, or maths possessing SEN designations. Post-16 outcomes extend the trend: pupils with EHC plans averaged 7.1 grades below peers without SEN, while SEN support pupils trailed by 3.7 grades in 2023. These persistent gaps, documented in government releases, reflect longstanding challenges rather than recent fluctuations, though identification increases (to 18.4% of pupils in 2023/24) have not narrowed disparities.

Social and Long-Term Outcomes

Pupils with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) in face elevated risks of and during school years, with longitudinal surveys indicating that 36% experience frequent bullying compared to 25% of pupils without SEND. This disparity arises from factors such as visible differences in behavior or learning, which can lead to peer rejection, particularly in mainstream settings where relies on unadapted interactions. Research on cohorts shows that children with SEND are less likely to form reciprocal friendships or engage in out-of-school social activities with peers, resulting in smaller social networks and heightened isolation. These patterns persist across educational provisions, though specialized settings may mitigate some relational strains by grouping similar pupils, yet overall, SEND status correlates with poorer peer acceptance and emotional distress from . In adulthood, individuals with SEND histories exhibit persistent mental health challenges, including higher General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12) scores indicating psychological distress, elevated anxiety, and chronic conditions compared to non-SEND peers. Department for Education analysis of cohorts born in 1999/2000 reveals that those identified with SEND at age 16-17 report worse mental health outcomes by age 19-20, with needs-based groups like low-support SEN faring significantly poorer than those without. This continuity stems from unaddressed developmental vulnerabilities and cumulative stressors, including school exclusions or inadequate transitions, exacerbating risks of lifelong dependency on health services. Employment outcomes remain markedly inferior, with young adults leaving with SEND securing paid work at rates as low as 5.9% immediately post-exit, reflecting barriers like skill mismatches and employer biases. Broader data on disabled adults, encompassing many with SEND origins, show rates of 53-54% in 2024, versus 82% for non-disabled, with SEND-specific longitudinal tracking confirming lifetime labour market disadvantages through reduced entry opportunities and wage penalties. Independence metrics, such as economic self-sufficiency, decline further into mid-life, with former SEND pupils more reliant on benefits and less likely to achieve full-time roles, underscoring systemic failures in fostering vocational autonomy despite policy emphases on transitions. These disparities highlight causal links between early educational identification and provisioning inadequacies—such as fragmented support—propagating into reduced and higher material deprivation.

Comparative Evidence: Mainstream versus Specialized Settings

Studies examining academic attainment for pupils with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) in the UK have found no consistent evidence that mainstream placements yield superior outcomes compared to specialized settings, particularly for those with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) or severe cognitive impairments. An archive-based analysis of assessments for children with ASD indicated that pupils in mainstream schools achieved similar levels of progress in core subjects as those in special schools, with no significant advantage for inclusion after controlling for baseline abilities. Similarly, research on broader SEND cohorts using administrative data from revealed that higher degrees of integration into mainstream environments correlated with marginally lower academic performance for pupils with low predicted mainstream success, suggesting that specialized provisions may better accommodate complex needs without diluting instructional focus. In terms of social and behavioral outcomes, evidence leans toward advantages in specialized settings for certain subgroups. A comparative study of children with ASD reported greater improvements in conduct and socialization scores for those in special schools versus mainstream placements, attributing this to environments designed for targeted interventions and reduced peer comparison stress. However, for pupils with milder needs or conditions like , placements vary without clear superiority; primary-level mainstream inclusion is more common (around 80%), but secondary transitions often shift toward specialized support due to escalating demands, with limited data showing equivalent self-sufficiency measures across settings. Overall, mainstream settings frequently result in SEND pupils trailing non-SEND peers by several years in reading, writing, and , highlighting implementation gaps in inclusive practices despite policy emphasis. Long-term outcomes, including post-school employment and independence, remain under-researched in UK-specific comparisons, but available analyses indicate that segregated specialized education does not inherently impair community integration more than inclusion, challenging assumptions of universal mainstream benefits. Selection effects complicate interpretations—pupils in special schools typically present with more profound disabilities, yet progress metrics adjusted for severity often favor tailored environments over generalized mainstream support. Peer-reviewed evidence underscores the need for individualized placement decisions rather than blanket inclusion, as mainstream failures in behavioral management and attainment gaps persist amid resource strains.

Criticisms and Systemic Challenges

Funding Shortages and Unsustainable Costs

Local authorities in have faced persistent overspending on high-needs budgets for special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) since 2016–17, driven by surging demand for education, health, and care plans (EHCPs), which increased by 71% between 2018 and 2024. This has resulted in cumulative deficits exceeding £5 billion across councils by mid-2025, forcing many to borrow from general reserves or access government "safety valve" loans, which accrue interest and exacerbate long-term fiscal strain. High-needs funding, allocated through the Dedicated Schools Grant, reached £10.7 billion in 2024–25, a 58% increase over the previous decade, yet this has failed to cover expenditures amid rising placements in independent special schools, where average annual costs per pupil exceed £50,000 compared to £6,900 in state-funded special schools. Local authorities report that tribunal appeals, often won by parents due to perceived inadequacies in local provision, contribute to cost escalation, as councils must fund more expensive external placements to avoid legal losses. Projections indicate further unsustainability without structural reforms, with high-needs spending forecasted to rise by £2–3 billion by 2028 and total SEND costs reaching £21 billion annually by 2029, outpacing overall growth and straining finances already burdened by demographic pressures and insufficient mainstream capacity. The National Audit Office has described the system as financially unsustainable, noting a projected mismatch of £2.9–3.7 billion by 2027–28, as increased identification rates—nearly doubling the share of children receiving SEND support over a decade—have not yielded proportional improvements in outcomes, suggesting inefficiencies in rather than absolute shortages alone. Delays in government overhauls, such as the postponed 2025 on SEND reform pushed to 2026, have compounded pressures, imposing hundreds of millions in additional short-term costs on councils while failing to address root causes like supply shortages in specialist provision and over-reliance on adversarial legal processes. Parliamentary inquiries emphasize that without curbing demand growth and enhancing mainstream efficacy, the system's trajectory risks a "national emergency," with local authorities potentially unable to sustain services amid competing priorities like adult social care.

Over-Identification and Potential Over-Diagnosis

The proportion of pupils identified as having special educational needs (SEN) in has risen markedly, reaching 19.6% (over 1.7 million pupils) in January 2025, up from approximately 15% a decade earlier. The number of , and Care Plans (EHCPs), which provide statutory entitlements to specialized support, has more than doubled since 2016, increasing to 638,700 active plans by January 2025—a 10.8% rise from the previous year and representing 5.3% of pupils. This escalation persists despite declining birth rates and stable overall pupil numbers, with EHCP requests surging 88% from 2019 to 2024. Critics argue that this trend reflects over-identification rather than a genuine increase, driven by financial incentives for schools and local authorities, where SEN designations unlock additional per-pupil funding—often 2-3 times the standard rate—and legal protections against mainstream placement challenges. A 2025 Policy Exchange report, "Out of Control," contends that one in five children now labeled with SEND represents systemic over-diagnosis, exacerbated by broadened diagnostic criteria for conditions like autism and ADHD, parental for resource access, and schools' avoidance of for underperformance by reclassifying behavioral or academic struggles as disabilities. Similarly, former Health Secretary has highlighted how over-diagnosis pathologizes normal developmental variability, such as uneven maturation, straining a already facing unsustainable costs projected to exceed £10 billion annually by 2025. Empirical indicators of potential over-diagnosis include regional and demographic disparities, with higher identification rates in deprived areas and among certain ethnic groups, suggesting contextual factors like or disrupted schooling are misattributed to inherent needs rather than environmental causes. The Institute for Fiscal Studies notes that while improved awareness contributes to rises, the disproportionate growth in EHCPs—up 71% from 2018 to —outpaces evidence of underlying epidemiological shifts, implying diagnostic inflation dilutes targeted support for severe cases and incentivizes low-threshold assessments over evidence-based interventions. Proponents of this view, including local authority leaders, warn that without tighter criteria, the SEND framework risks becoming an "unaffordable racket," diverting resources from truly disabled pupils and undermining mainstream teaching efficacy.

Under-Identification and Inequitable Access

Under-identification of special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) in persists among specific subgroups, despite overall increases in recorded . For instance, girls with autism spectrum conditions are diagnosed at significantly lower rates than boys, with a reported diagnostic of approximately 3:1, though suggests the true may be closer due to girls' tendencies to mask symptoms through social mimicry and internalization of challenges. This under-identification often delays access to tailored support, as girls may not exhibit the overt behavioral traits typically screened for in boys, leading to unmet needs in mainstream settings until crises emerge in . Ethnic disparities further contribute to inequitable identification, with certain minority groups underrepresented in SEND registers relative to estimated needs. Research indicates that Black African and Chinese pupils are less likely to receive special educational needs support or Education, Health and Care Plans (EHCPs) compared to peers, potentially stemming from cultural differences in help-seeking, diagnostic biases, or lower referral rates in under-resourced schools serving diverse populations. Conversely, some groups like Gypsy/Roma or Irish Traveller children show over-identification, highlighting systemic inconsistencies rather than uniform under-detection. These patterns suggest that identification processes may not equitably capture needs across ethnicities, exacerbating attainment gaps for underrepresented children. Socioeconomic status influences both identification and access to provision, with pupils from deprived backgrounds facing barriers to timely assessments. Family-level factors, such as parental skills and access to private diagnostics, correlate with higher identification rates, leaving lower-income households reliant on strained local services that prioritize severe cases. data from 2023/24 reveals that while 20.5% of pupils overall had identified SEND, free meal-eligible children—proxies for —exhibited variable support uptake, often due to resource shortages in high-poverty areas. This results in inequitable access, as under-identified pupils in disadvantaged settings receive generic interventions rather than individualized EHCPs, which numbered only 5.3% nationally in 2024/25. Regional inequities compound these issues, with EHCP issuance and funding varying markedly by local authority. Pupils in receive on average 9.7% more per-pupil funding for SEND than in other regions, correlating with higher EHCP rates and better provision, while rural or northern areas lag due to uneven and longer waiting lists for assessments. The National Audit Office estimated in 2024 that around 11% of children aged 0-25 have identified SEND needs, but systemic pressures, including workforce shortages in , hinder equitable detection nationwide. Such disparities perpetuate cycles of under-support, where unidentified or underserved children experience poorer academic and social outcomes without targeted interventions.

Exclusions, Off-Rolling, and Behavioral Management

Pupils with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) in England experience disproportionately high rates of school suspensions and permanent exclusions. Department for Education statistics indicate that the permanent exclusion rate for pupils receiving SEN support is five times higher than for those without identified SEN. Similarly, pupils with education, health and care plans (EHCPs) face exclusion rates several times the national average, with suspension rates for this group reaching 21.60 per 100 pupils in recent data, compared to 6.38 per 100 for pupils without SEN. In the 2023/24 academic year, overall permanent exclusions rose to 10,900—a 16% increase from the previous year—amid broader trends linking exclusions to behavioral challenges often tied to unmet SEND. Analyses of primary school data show that up to 88% of excluded pupils were receiving SEN support, underscoring the intersection of behavioral issues and inadequate provision. Off-rolling, defined by as the removal of a from the school roll without a permanent exclusion when primarily benefiting the school's interests rather than the 's, unlawfully vulnerable groups including those with SEND. This , which circumvents formal exclusion processes to enhance accountability metrics like exam , affects an estimated 33% SEND , particularly those with autism or ADHD whose behaviors challenge mainstream . reports link off-rolling to insufficient support for behavioral needs, with schools under pressure from encouraging such removals; for instance, emerging correlate off-rolling with identifiable SEND cohorts facing strains. While illegal under exclusion guidance, remains challenging, as removals can be masked as parental choice or alternative placements, exacerbating inequities for SEND families. Behavioral in special education emphasizes proactive, individualized strategies over punitive measures, as outlined in guidance updated in 2023, which prioritizes early interventions like support plans to address root causes of disruption often linked to SEND. For neurodiverse pupils, standard policies rooted in neurotypical assumptions—such as uniform reward systems or isolation—may fail to accommodate sensory or cognitive factors, increasing exclusion risks; consultations on revised behavior guidance highlight that exclusions for SEND pupils frequently reflect systemic gaps in understanding -related behaviors rather than deliberate defiance. Equality Act duties prohibit exclusions amounting to , yet data show persistent over-reliance on removal for behaviors amenable to tailored , such as positive charts or therapeutic input, which evidence suggests reduce incidents when resourced adequately. In special schools, where behavioral provisions are specialized, exclusion rates are lower, indicating that mainstream settings' limitations contribute causally to broader trends.

Failures in Inclusion Implementation

Despite policy commitments to inclusive education under the Children and Families Act 2014, in mainstream schools has been hampered by chronic shortages of specialist resources and staff, leading to inadequate support for pupils with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND). A 2021 survey of 93 mainstream teachers found that 90% identified insufficient funding, support staff, and infrastructure as primary barriers to effective inclusion, with resource concerns scoring highest among factors contributing to implementation failures. Similarly, high-needs funding has risen by over 50% in real terms since 2019, yet local authorities face cumulative deficits exceeding £8 billion by March 2027, diverting resources from lower-level SEND support in mainstream settings to costly independent provisions. Teacher training deficiencies exacerbate these issues, as many mainstream educators lack preparation for diverse SEND needs, resulting in heightened stress and inconsistent practices. The same 2021 study reported that 73% of teachers associated rising SEND pupil numbers with increased anxiety and workload, while behavioral management challenges often overwhelm under-resourced classrooms, contributing to ineffective inclusion. Ofsted's chief inspector noted in January 2025 that SEND represents the "biggest issue" for schools, with a 2022 review indicating 55% of local areas required intervention due to significant weaknesses in provision, including mainstream inclusion failures. Delays in processing and implementing Education, Health and Care Plans (EHCPs) further undermine inclusion, with councils unable to meet statutory timelines amid staff shortages, such as difficulties recruiting educational psychologists. In 2023-24, 92% of SEND-related complaints to the local government ombudsman were upheld, reflecting systemic failures that delay support and set children's development back by months or years. This has led to patchy outcomes, including a in provision quality and evidence of poorer academic attainment for SEND pupils in highly integrated mainstream environments compared to specialized settings. Higher exclusion rates for SEND pupils highlight behavioral and support gaps in mainstream inclusion, with persistent disruptions cited in 55% of suspensions and 49% of permanent exclusions in autumn 2022/23, often linked to insufficient resources post-pandemic. Mainstream schools' reliance on reactive rather than preventive measures, coupled with academic pressures from standardized testing, has been criticized for excluding lower-performing SEND pupils, perpetuating a cycle of off-rolling and inequitable access.

Recent Reforms and Debates

Key Reforms from 2014 Onward

The Children and Families Act 2014 marked a pivotal reform in England's special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) framework, enacting provisions from September 2014 that replaced the longstanding Statements of Special Educational Needs with (EHC Plans). These plans integrated assessments and provisions across , sectors, aiming to address children's needs holistically through a single, legally binding document rather than fragmented processes. The Act extended the age range for mandatory support from 2-19 to 0-25 years, incorporating early years provision, , apprenticeships, and transitions to employment or independent living. It also mandated local authorities to publish a "Local Offer" detailing available SEND services, enhancing transparency for families. A core element of the 2014 reforms emphasized parental and young person involvement, granting families rights to participate in assessments, request specific schools or placements (subject to suitability), and opt for personal budgets to direct funding for provisions like or equipment. For those not qualifying for EHC Plans, the Act introduced a graduated "SEND Support" tier in mainstream settings, replacing School Action and School Action Plus, with schools required to involve specialists and track progress against outcomes. Transition from Statements to EHC Plans was mandated by April 2018, affecting approximately 250,000 children initially, though local authorities retained discretion to maintain Statements until conversion. Complementing the Act, the Department for Education issued the SEND Code of Practice in January 2015, which became statutory guidance from April 2015 and outlined operational procedures for local authorities, schools, health bodies, and further education providers. The Code stressed person-centered planning, with EHC Plans required to specify outcomes focused on independence and long-term aspirations rather than solely educational targets, and introduced mediation and appeals processes to resolve disputes before tribunal. It applied primarily to England, as SEND policy is devolved in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, where separate systems like Additional Support for Learning in Scotland persisted without equivalent EHC integration. Subsequent refinements included the 2014 SEND Regulations, which enabled direct payments under personal budgets from local authority top-up funding, effective alongside the Act. By 2018, full implementation shifted over 90% of Statements to EHC Plans, though data from the indicated rising demand, with EHC Plan numbers increasing from 240,000 in 2014 to over 500,000 by 2022. These reforms sought to promote inclusion in mainstream settings where possible, while preserving access to specialist provision, but did not alter core funding mechanisms, which remained delegated to schools via the Dedicated Schools Grant.

2023-2025 Reviews and Proposed Changes

In March 2023, the (DfE) released the SEND and Alternative Provision Improvement Plan, titled Right support, right place, right time, which responded to the 2022 consultation by prioritizing system stabilization, earlier identification and intervention, and stronger local accountability. The plan proposed establishing up to nine Regional Expert Partnerships to co-produce and test reforms, supported by a £70 million Change Programme, alongside a National Implementation Board to oversee progress and address immediate pressures such as rising demand for education, health, and care plans (EHCPs). It emphasized avoiding large-scale legislative changes in favor of piloting adjustments to placement rules and funding mechanisms, amid concerns over unsustainable high-needs budgets exceeding £10 billion annually. Implementation faced challenges, with EHCP numbers surging 11.1% to 483,000 pupils in the 2024/25 , doubling since 2016 and straining local authorities with deficits projected at £6 billion by March 2026. A January 2025 report described the system as in crisis and unviable without urgent reform, citing failures in early support and over-reliance on EHCPs. The National Audit Office's October 2024 analysis similarly highlighted a 140% EHCP increase from 2015 to 2024 (reaching 576,000), attributing pressures to inconsistent local practices and inadequate mainstream capacity. Under the Labour government elected in 2024, a comprehensive SEND overhaul —initially slated for autumn 2025—was deferred to early 2026 to allow further stakeholder consultation, including regional listening sessions and fortnightly ministerial meetings with parents and experts. The delay reflects caution over financial sustainability and potential backlash, with proposals expected to revise funding models, EHCP processes, and support pathways while pausing prior Conservative "" deficit deals. In September 2025, the Education Select Committee urged retaining EHCPs and tribunals as parental safeguards, alongside statutory national minimum standards for school-based SEND support, enhanced teacher training, and inflation-linked per-pupil funding increases, while advocating investment in specialist provisions to reduce mainstream exclusions. Statutory overrides for local deficits were extended to 2028, signaling interim fiscal relief amid ongoing testing of inclusion-focused pilots.

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