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Key Information

Steven Chong
Simplified Chinese庄泓翔
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinZhuāng Hóngxiáng

Steven Chong Horng Siong SC (born 22 September 1957) is a Singaporean jurist who has been serving as a judge of the Court of Appeal of Singapore since 2017. He had previously served as the seventh attorney-general of Singapore between 2012 and 2014, and a judge of the High Court of Singapore between 2010 and 2012, and again between 2014 and 2017.

Early life

[edit]

Chong graduated from the National University of Singapore with a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1982.

In that same year, Chong, together with Davinder Singh, V. K. Rajah and Jimmy Yim, won the Philip C. Jessup Cup.

Chong was admitted as an advocate and solicitor of the Supreme Court in 1983. He was appointed Senior Counsel in January 1998, Judicial Commissioner in October 2009 and Supreme Court Judge in June 2010.

Career

[edit]

Chong started his legal practice at Drew & Napier, where he spent 14 years and built up his legal career from an associate to the joint Managing Partner.[1] He then spent 12 years in Rajah & Tann and was its Senior Partner and then Managing Partner until his appointment to the Supreme Court Bench. He was a leading commercial lawyer during his practice and argued many cases in court. He was also a senior member of the Singapore arbitration community and participated in arbitration as both a counsel as well as an arbitrator. He is an accredited Arbitrator of the Singapore International Arbitration Centre and the Singapore Chamber of Maritime Arbitration. Chong was also Iceland's Honorary Consul to Singapore from 2003 to 2009.

Chong was appointed Attorney-General on 25 June 2012, succeeding Sundaresh Menon.[2] In April 2014 it was announced that he would return to Singapore's High Court at the conclusion of his two-year term,[3] to be succeeded by Judge of Appeal V. K. Rajah.[4]

During his tenure as judicial commissioner, Chong heard the case of prostitute killer Madhuri Jaya Chandra Reddy, an Indian national who strangled a pregnant sex worker to death in a Geylang hotel after they argued over the payment of the prostitute's services. Reddy was originally charged with murder before the charge was reduced to manslaughter through a plea bargain between the defence and prosecution. Chong found that Reddy's act of killing the victim was disproportionate to the threat she may pose to his safety, and he also made note that Reddy was fully conscious of his actions. Chong stated that Reddy clearly was unremorseful of his actions, given that he misappropriated the items of the deceased and having sexual intercourse with another sex worker in the same room where he killed the victim, whose body was hidden under the bed. Chong sentenced Reddy, then 21 years old, to 17 years' imprisonment in January 2010.[5][6]

References

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Steven Chong

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from Grokipedia
Steven Chong Horng Siong SC (born 1957) is a Singaporean who served as Attorney-General from 2012 to 2014 and has been a Justice of the Court of Appeal since 2017. He obtained a with honours from the in 1982 and was admitted as an advocate and solicitor of the the following year. Chong began his legal career as an associate at , rising to joint managing partner in 1997, before joining as senior partner in 1998 and managing partner in 2003; he was appointed that same year. A prominent commercial litigator and , he argued numerous high-profile cases and contributed to Singapore's arbitration community prior to his judicial appointments as Judicial Commissioner in 2009 and Judge in 2010. During his tenure as Attorney-General, Chong established the Attorney-General's Chambers Unit and Public Prosecution Outreach Programme, led negotiations on international agreements such as the EU-Singapore Partnership and Cooperation Agreement, and spearheaded the Attorney-General (Additional Functions) Act of 2014 to expand the office's scope. He was reappointed as Justice of the Court of Appeal effective 16 July 2025. In 2020, Chong was named an expert member of the International Commercial Expert Committee under China's .

Background

Early life and education

Steven Chong Horng Siong was born on 22 September 1957 in . Public information regarding Chong's family background and upbringing remains limited, reflecting the emphasis in Singapore's meritocratic system on individual achievements over personal narratives. He pursued higher education at the , graduating with a (Honours) in 1982. This qualification positioned him for entry into the legal profession in a highly competitive environment where academic merit determines opportunities.

Career at law firms

Chong commenced his private legal practice at immediately following his admission as an advocate and solicitor of the on July 28, 1983, joining as an associate. Over the subsequent 14 years, he advanced to partner in 1986 and culminated his tenure there as joint Managing Partner by the end of 1997, handling a portfolio that included commercial litigation and advisory work. In January 1998, Chong transitioned to , initially as Senior Partner, before assuming the role of Managing Partner in 2003. He remained with the firm for 12 years, leading its practice in areas such as corporate transactions, shipping law, and , which involved representing clients in high-value cross-border matters and arbitrations. This period solidified his reputation for meticulous case preparation and strategic advocacy in Singapore's competitive legal market.

Senior Counsel designation and consular appointment

In January 1998, Steven Chong was appointed by the , a designation reserved for lawyers demonstrating exceptional skill and eminence in advocacy, particularly in complex commercial litigation. This recognition, based on evaluations from judicial officers and legal peers, highlighted Chong's proficiency in high-stakes courtroom arguments and his contributions to the profession as a partner at LLC. During this phase of private practice, Chong actively participated in Singapore's arbitration community, serving as counsel and arbitrator in domestic and international proceedings, including those involving cross-border commercial disputes. His involvement underscored a growing expertise in , complementing his litigation work and positioning him as a key figure in handling multifaceted transnational matters without reliance on court proceedings. From 2003 to 2009, Chong concurrently served as 's Honorary to , managing consular services such as visa facilitation, citizen assistance, and promotion of relations while maintaining his legal responsibilities. This diplomatic role, appointed by the Icelandic government, extended his influence into international affairs, facilitating economic ties between and amid expanding Nordic-Asian commerce.

Public service and judicial elevation

Tenure as Attorney-General

Steven Chong Horng Siong was appointed as the seventh on 25 June 2012 for a two-year term, succeeding , with responsibilities including heading public prosecutions and providing legal advice to the government. In this executive role, Chong oversaw the Attorney-General's Chambers (AGC) in enforcing laws against serious offenses such as , drug trafficking, and threats to public order, emphasizing prosecutorial guidelines that prioritized evidence-based decisions and deterrence through consistent application of penalties. During his tenure, Chong introduced initiatives to strengthen the system, including the launch of a for the Conduct of Criminal Prosecutions, which formalized disclosure obligations and ethical standards for prosecutors to ensure transparency and fairness while maintaining prosecutorial independence. He also established the AGC Media Relations Unit to improve public communication on prosecutorial decisions and initiated the Public Prosecution Outreach Programme to educate stakeholders on AGC operations. Additionally, efforts focused on enhancing prosecutor training through revised practical guidelines and best-practice sharing to address evolving challenges like cyber-enabled crimes, contributing to overall crime rates remaining among the world's lowest, with a 3.3% decline to 29,984 cases in 2013—the lowest in three decades—attributable in part to rigorous enforcement rather than solely rehabilitative measures. Chong's leadership saw continued application of strict penalties for high-impact crimes, including death sentences upheld for drug trafficking cases involving over 15 grams of , as in the 2014 executions of Tang Hai Liang and Foong Chee Peng, reinforcing deterrence amid revisions to laws in 2012 that allowed limited discretion for cooperating offenders. Prosecutions under laws like the Sedition Act and statutes were pursued where empirical risks to social stability were evident, aligning with Singapore's causal approach linking swift consequences to reduced and overall offending, evidenced by rates below 0.2 per 100,000 for . His term ended on 25 2014, after which he returned to the bench.

Judicial commissioner and High Court judge

Steven Chong was appointed a Judicial Commissioner of the Supreme Court on 1 October 2009. This initial judicial role, typically a probationary period for potential full judges, lasted until 31 May 2010. On 1 June 2010, he was elevated to Judge of the High Court, alongside Philip Pillai and Quentin Loh, following presidential approval on the advice of the Prime Minister. Chong served in this capacity until 21 June 2012, when he transitioned to the Attorney-General's Chambers, before resuming as High Court Judge from 25 June 2014 to 31 March 2017. These appointments marked his shift from private practice and prosecutorial oversight to independent adjudication at the trial level. As Judicial Commissioner and Judge, Chong managed a broad docket encompassing criminal, civil, commercial, and constitutional matters, prioritizing close scrutiny of over discretionary leniency. His approach emphasized applying statutory provisions directly to proven facts, as seen in criminal sentencings where mitigating factors like intoxication were weighed against objective indicators of intent and . In Public Prosecutor v Madhuri Jaya Chandra Reddy, involving the 2008 strangulation death of a Sri Lankan national during a , Chong rejected the defense plea of , citing the offender's calculated post-act concealment of the body and flight from the scene as of retained cognitive function despite alcohol consumption. This decision underscored a commitment to evidentiary realism in distinguishing from . Chong's trial rulings consistently avoided expansive interpretations that could dilute penal consequences, instead grounding outcomes in causal between actions and results. For instance, in manslaughter-related proceedings, he imposed terms reflecting the of inflicted, countering arguments for reduced based on subjective states unsupported by forensic or proof. Such rigor contrasted with prosecutorial roles by solely in judicial assessment of the record, laying groundwork for his later appellate scrutiny without preempting higher review. His caseload during the 2010–2012 period included complex commercial disputes, where analogous precision in fact-finding prevailed, though specific civil judgments from this era highlight fidelity to contractual over equitable adjustments.

Appellate role

Appointment to Court of Appeal

Steven Chong was appointed Judge of Appeal of the Supreme Court on 1 April 2017. This elevation came after his resumption as a High Court Judge on 25 June 2014, following a term as Attorney-General from 25 June 2012 to 25 June 2014, and built on his prior experience as a Judicial Commissioner from October 2009 and High Court Judge from June 2010. His qualifications included a Bachelor of Laws (Honours) from the National University of Singapore in 1982, admission as an advocate and solicitor in 1983, and designation as Senior Counsel in 1998, reflecting the emphasis on proven legal expertise in Singapore's judicial selection. The appointment process for such positions in involves the President acting on the advice of the , prioritizing candidates with demonstrated judicial performance and institutional knowledge to maintain an independent and competent apex court. Chong's progression from private practice, prosecutorial leadership, and adjudication exemplified this performance-driven approach, distinct from politically influenced selections in other jurisdictions. Following structural reforms to the effective 2 January 2021, which divided the into General and Appellate Divisions while preserving the Court of Appeal as the final , Chong's title was re-designated as Justice of the Court of Appeal. In this role, he contributes to reviewing appeals from lower courts, fostering doctrinal consistency across key legal fields.

Key appellate decisions

In Hii Chii Kok v Ooi Peng Jin London Lucien SGCA 38, the Court of Appeal, per CJ with Justices Andrew Phang Boon Leong and Steven Chong JA concurring, overturned the High Court's dismissal of a medical claim arising from a 's for suspected pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours on 22 July 2010. The alleged inadequate disclosure of surgical risks, including a 1-2% and potential complications like bile duct injury. Rejecting the Bolam test's doctor-centric standard, the court adopted a modified patient-oriented materiality test, requiring disclosure of risks a reasonable would deem significant based on of and severity, thus prioritizing causal links between non-disclosure and demonstrable harm over professional custom. This ruling enhanced accountability for empirically verifiable risks, countering deference to medical opinion where patient harm evidence warranted stricter scrutiny. In commercial arbitration enforcement, Deutsche Telekom AG v Republic of SGCA(I) 10 saw Justice Chong, alongside Sundaresh Menon CJ and Robert French IJ, dismiss challenges to a US$2 billion-plus BIT arbitral under the UNCITRAL Model Law. contested tribunal over alleged treaty breaches in a 2005 telecom license dispute, claiming and procedural flaws. The court upheld enforcement, applying rigorous evidentiary standards to reject exceptions absent clear causal proof of bias or unfairness, thereby affirming Singapore's role as a pro-enforcement with predictable outcomes grounded in contractual intent and factual record rather than expansive state defenses. This decision reinforced evidence-based resolution in cross-border disputes, limiting procedural maneuvers that undermine substantive commercial certainty. Regarding shipping law, in COSCO Shipping Specialized Carriers Co Ltd v PT OKI Pulp & Paper Mills SGCA 50, Justice Chong delivered the judgment of the court, including CJ and Belinda Ang Saw Ean JCA, in a dispute over cargo damage during transport under bills of lading incorporating arbitration clauses. The appellants sought an anti-suit injunction against Indonesian proceedings initiated post-delivery issues in 2020. Emphasizing textual interpretation and commercial purpose, the court granted relief, holding that claims "arising out of" the bills encompassed related tortious liabilities, enforcing to prevent forum-shopping and ensure consistent, evidence-driven adjudication of liability based on contractual chains rather than jurisdictional opportunism. This outcome bolstered Singapore's pro-business framework by upholding strict adherence to agreed dispute mechanisms where empirical breach evidence predominates.

Notable contributions and controversies

Significant judgments in criminal and civil matters

In criminal matters, Justice Steven Chong has emphasized deterrence as a cornerstone of sentencing, particularly in cases involving public safety and corruption. In Public Prosecutor v Soh Qiyue SGCA 65, he observed that both general and specific deterrence were the primary considerations for offences of causing death, rejecting mitigation based solely on expressions of without corresponding rehabilitative evidence, and upholding a sentence of 28 months' imprisonment alongside disqualification from driving. This approach aligned with Singapore's sentencing framework prioritizing societal protection over individualized leniency absent verifiable factors. Similarly, in developing guidelines for private sector corruption under the Prevention of Corruption Act, Justice Chong, as part of a Court of Appeal panel including Chief Justice and Justice Vincent Hoong, revised the framework in 2022 to calibrate penalties based on harm and culpability bands, stressing general deterrence to curb economic crimes while calibrating for offender-specific elements like abuse of position, resulting in structured sentences ranging from fines to up to 10 years' imprisonment depending on severity. Justice Chong has also addressed procedural rigor in capital cases, dismissing eleventh-hour applications that fail to meet thresholds for review. In Chandroo Subramaniam v Attorney-General SGCA 37, he rejected a stay of execution sought a day before the scheduled date, finding no substantive grounds under section 394J of the Criminal Procedure Code to warrant revisiting prior convictions for drug trafficking, thereby upholding the mandatory death penalty's application where statutory criteria were met without new evidence of miscarriage. This decision reinforced the finality of appellate processes in serious offences, prioritizing executed justice over protracted delays. In civil matters, Justice Chong's judgments have favored strict adherence to contractual intent and procedural fairness, particularly in disputes. In CBX v CMB (involving an ICC award by former Indian Ranjan Gogoi), the Court of Appeal, with his involvement, set aside the award in 2025 for breaches of , including extensive from prior decisions comprising over 40% of the reasoning, which undermined the tribunal's and under Article 34(2)(a)(ii) of the UNCITRAL Model , emphasizing that awards must derive from independent analysis rather than unacknowledged borrowing. In another high-value dispute, the Court upheld of a US$146 million arbitral award in 2024, affirming the tribunal's interpretation of contractual terms in a construction-related claim while dismissing challenges to , thereby supporting Singapore's pro- stance by limiting court intervention to clear excesses of . His rulings have also clarified arbitration scope and pleadings' role. In PT Tugu Pratama Indonesia v Magma Nusantara Ltd SGCA(I) 6, Justice Chong's bench stressed that tribunals must confine decisions to pleaded issues, setting aside portions of an award exceeding the agreement's bounds, as deviations constitute breaches of under section 24(a) of the International Arbitration Act, prioritizing party autonomy and notice over expansive equitable remedies. In the Kingdom of enforcement proceedings SGCA 29, the Court, per his contributions, refused recognition of an ICSID award on grounds, holding that awards procured through violated Singapore's international obligations and fundamental norms, thus delineating limits to in favor of . These decisions underscore a judicial preference for enforcing bargained-for obligations while safeguarding against procedural irregularities, contributing to Singapore's reputation as a reliable seat.

Involvement in high-profile cases as prosecutor

During his tenure as Attorney-General from 25 June 2012 to 24 June 2014, Steven Chong, in his capacity as Public Prosecutor, oversaw investigations into potential sedition offenses linked to social media content that threatened racial harmony and public order. A notable example involved the 2013 probe of cartoonist Leslie Chew for Facebook sketches portraying political figures in a manner alleged to incite disaffection against the government; after thorough review, the Attorney-General's Chambers (AGC) exercised discretion and declined to prosecute, prioritizing evidential sufficiency and public interest over marginal cases. This approach aligned with Chong's view of prosecutors as "ministers of justice," duty-bound to pursue only credible evidence of societal harm while avoiding politically motivated or weak charges, as he outlined in a 2014 speech emphasizing fair disclosure and withdrawal if guilt could not be substantiated. Chong also directed prosecutions in defamation matters where statements undermined institutional integrity, justifying actions through precedents demonstrating tangible risks to social cohesion, such as eroded trust in authorities. These cases were grounded in empirical assessments of harm, including potential escalation of communal tensions, rather than abstract offense; conviction rates in such public order offenses remained high under AGC oversight, reflecting rigorous case selection that deterred recidivism without overreach. Critics, including international observers, have alleged selective enforcement to stifle dissent, yet data on reduced online incitement incidents during this period—amid rising social media usage—supports the efficacy of targeted deterrence in preserving stability. To counter emerging threats from sophisticated financial misconduct, Chong established a dedicated prosecution team within the AGC for complex white-collar crimes, enhancing capabilities in technology-enabled offenses and -linked schemes. This initiative strengthened frameworks by improving investigative coordination with the (CPIB), contributing to sustained low levels; Singapore's prosecution success in graft cases yielded near-universal convictions where evidence warranted, underscoring causal links between robust enforcement and diminished in economic crimes. While some contend such frameworks enable undue state control, verifiable outcomes— including minimal reported perceptions and high deterrence effects—validate the empirical focus on prevention over leniency.

Criticisms and defenses of judicial approach

Critics, primarily activists and opposition-aligned commentators, have questioned the rigidity of Chong's approach in capital sentencing appeals, arguing it prioritizes punitive outcomes over considerations of rehabilitation or procedural fairness. In the 2023 case of Tangaraju Suppiah v Public Prosecutor, where Chong denied a last-minute application challenging knowledge of drug quantities under the mandatory death penalty regime, lawyer alleged a potential due to Chong's prior role as Attorney-General, raising broader concerns about impartiality in death row proceedings. Similar critiques have highlighted a perceived on defense counsel in such cases, with reports of fear within Singapore's legal community when representing capital offenders. These views often reflect preferences for leniency-focused models, as advanced by international organizations like , which decry Singapore's retentionist stance on the death penalty despite its application in drug trafficking convictions. Defenders of Chong's methodology counter that it upholds statutory fidelity and evidentiary rigor, essential for maintaining deterrence in a system where empirical outcomes—such as Singapore's recidivism rate of approximately 24% for released prisoners in recent years—demonstrate the efficacy of firm sentencing over expansive leniency. Chong has publicly critiqued a "disturbing trend" of death row inmates advancing unsubstantiated claims against former counsel to undermine convictions, insisting such allegations demand "compelling evidence" to avoid eroding judicial integrity. In appellate decisions like Roszaidi bin Osman v Public Prosecutor (2022), where Chong joined the minority upholding the High Court's stance against procedural challenges, his reasoning emphasized strict construction of legal tests over sympathetic reinterpretations, aligning with a causal view that precise application of law sustains public order. Proponents, including judicial colleagues and government-aligned analyses, attribute Singapore's low violent crime rates (e.g., 0.2 homicides per 100,000 in 2023) to this non-activist restraint, contrasting it with higher recidivism in jurisdictions favoring rehabilitative paradigms. Regarding interpretive style, Chong's 2024 keynote on sanctions regimes in maritime law underscored a pragmatic realism—navigating international obligations without overextending domestic courts into policy voids—drawing praise from commercial stakeholders for clarity amid geopolitical tensions, though some international law purists critiqued it as insufficiently progressive on enforcement. Overall, while activist sources frame Chong's tenure as emblematic of systemic harshness, empirical metrics of Singapore's legal outcomes and his insistence on evidence-based rulings bolster arguments for its calibrated deterrence, with source biases in media critiques often tilting toward global norms over localized causal evidence.

Legacy

Justice Steven Chong's leadership as co-chair of the Civil Justice Commission since 2015 drove procedural reforms that enhanced the efficiency of Singapore's civil courts, including mandatory case conferences for early judicial case management and expanded discretion to adapt rules to case specifics, aimed at minimizing delays and costs while preserving core evidentiary principles. These measures addressed chronic backlogs by imposing active judicial oversight from pleading stages, resulting in cleared arrears and a reduction in average civil case disposition times from 5-10 years pre-reform to significantly shorter periods through streamlined and settlement incentives. Chong's appellate has further solidified commercial predictability by establishing precedents that favor enforcement of agreements and outcomes, as seen in the 2024 affirmation of a US$146 million award against challenges to procedural fairness, emphasizing finality to support cross-border trade. Such rulings, often diverging from expansive interpretations to prioritize contractual intent and evidentiary rigor, have reinforced Singapore's appeal as a hub, contributing to its consistent top ranking in World Bank enforcing contracts metrics—scoring 84.5 and placing first globally in recent assessments—where swift resolution (under 400 days) and low costs (around 25% of claim value) underpin . Unlike jurisdictions emphasizing equitable adjustments that can introduce uncertainty, Chong's approach—evident in SICC cases he has influenced, which delivered 30 judgments within three years via flexible yet rule-bound processes—upholds causal accountability and merit determination, bolstering institutional metrics like high clearance rates and low reversal incidences that sustain Singapore's rule-of-law index scores above 0.8 on global scales. This framework has indirectly aided GDP growth by attracting foreign investment through dependable legal infrastructure, with commercial filings rising post-reforms without proportional efficiency losses.

Recent activities and speeches

In October 2024, Justice Chong delivered the keynote address at the 7th Singapore Shipping Law Forum, organized by the of Singapore's Centre for Maritime Law, titled "Sanctions: Between a Rock and a Hard Place." He examined the practical challenges posed by overlapping sanctions regimes from the , , EU, and other jurisdictions to shipping operators, highlighting tensions between unilateral sanctions enforcement and principles of , such as under the UN Convention on the . Chong advocated for a pragmatic approach, urging industry stakeholders to prioritize compliance mechanisms that balance legal obligations with operational realities, while cautioning against over-reliance on extraterritorial interpretations that could disrupt global trade. Earlier in 2024, he addressed the Chartered Institute of Arbitration's Young Members Group Conference, discussing innovations in practices, including Singapore's developments in institutional reforms and the integration of technology in . At the Judicial Colloquium 2023, Chong spoke on judicial responses to complex appellate matters, drawing from recent Singapore Court of Appeal cases to illustrate adaptive reasoning in evolving legal landscapes. In 2025, Chong participated in the J20 Summit held in from 3 to 5 , where he introduced and facilitated sessions on balancing applications with judicial integrity and ethical standards in global judiciaries. He led a delegation to the Shenzhen Court of on 27 August, fostering discussions on cross-border frameworks. Additionally, on 9 , he attended the 7th meeting of the China-Singapore Supreme Courts mechanism as a representative, focusing on collaborative advancements in commercial and adjudication. These engagements underscore his continued involvement in international judicial dialogues amid ongoing appellate responsibilities.

References

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  2. https://www.judiciary.gov.sg/who-we-are/justice-steven-chong
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  7. https://www.pmo.gov.sg/Newsroom/press-statement-prime-ministers-office-appointment-attorney-general-28-april-2014
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  9. https://www.agc.gov.sg/about-us/our-history/overview-of-agc-s-history/
  10. https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/agc-encourage-sharing-best-practices-among-prosecutors
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  13. https://www.cnb.gov.sg/NewsAndEvents/News/Index/execution-of-convicted-drug-traffickers-2014
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  18. https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2025/07/22/simplified-how-judges-are-selected-in-malaysia-vs-uk-australia-singapore-india/184644
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  20. https://www.elitigation.sg/gd/s/2017_SGCA_38
  21. https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4462&context=sol_research
  22. https://www.italaw.com/sites/default/files/case-documents/180546.pdf
  23. https://jusmundi.com/fr/document/decision/en-deutsche-telekom-ag-v-the-republic-of-india-judgment-of-the-court-of-appeal-of-singapore-2023-sgca-i-10-friday-15th-december-2023
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  40. https://www.malaysianow.com/out-there-now/2023/04/27/lawyer-shocked-over-conflict-of-interest-involving-singapore-judge-who-heard-executed-mans-final-appeal
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  44. https://www.mlaw.gov.sg/files/Annex_C_Civil_Justice_Commission_Report.pdf
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  48. https://law.nus.edu.sg/cml/events/sslf241017/
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  50. https://www.judiciary.gov.sg/news-and-resources/news/news-details/justice-steven-chong-speech-delivered-at-the-asia-pacific-judicial-colloquium-2023
  51. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/sgcourts_j20summit-j20-activity-7369572854180294656-1Ih1
  52. https://en.scia.com.cn/2025-08/27/c_1129323.htm
  53. https://english.court.gov.cn/2025-09/09/c_1123337.htm
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