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Tumu Crisis
The Tumu Crisis, also known as the Crisis of the Tumu Fortress, or the Jisi Incident, was a border conflict between the Oirat Mongols and the Ming dynasty. In July 1449, Esen Taishi, leader of the Oirat Mongols, launched a large-scale, three-pronged invasion of China. Despite having capable generals, Emperor Yingzong of Ming, under the influence of eunuch Wang Zhen who dominated the Ming court at the time, made the decision to personally lead his armies into battle against Esen. On 1 September, the Ming army suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the much weaker Mongols, and the Emperor was captured. This defeat was one of the biggest military failures in the Ming dynasty's three centuries of existence, and it was largely attributed to the poor leadership of their army.
Esen was not prepared for the scale of his victory or for the capture of the Ming emperor. Initially, he attempted to use the captured Emperor to raise a ransom and planned to conquer the undefended Ming capital of Beijing. His plan was foiled due to the steadfast leadership of the commander in the capital, Yu Qian, and the ascension of the captured Emperor's brother, the Jingtai Emperor. Emperor Yingzong was eventually released in 1450, but his brother placed him under house arrest. Esen faced growing criticism for his failure to exploit his victory over the Ming and was assassinated six years after the battle in 1455.
The Ming dynasty was established in 1368 when Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), a former peasant rebel, overthrew the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and forced the Mongols to retreat back to the northern steppes. To counter persistent Mongol threats along the northern frontier, the Hongwu Emperor implemented significant military reforms and launched multiple military campaigns to secure the border regions. His son, the Yongle Emperor, further expanded these efforts by personally leading expeditions against the Mongols between 1410 and 1424. The decision to move the capital to Beijing in 1421 was also a strategic move to focus on northern defense. While these aggressive policies initially strengthened frontier security, they ultimately depleted Ming resources.
After the death of the Yongle Emperor in 1424, the defense of the northern borders began to deteriorate. Despite complaints from generals about the lack of resources, no action was taken. In 1435 and 1438, some garrisons were reinforced, but the overall situation remained unchanged. Inland, only half of the supposed 2.5 million soldiers in the Weisuo military system were actually performing their duties. Farms given to hereditary soldiers from Weisuo garrisons on the borders were often seized by officers, who became landowners while reducing their soldiers to farm laborers, leading to the collapse of local self-sufficiency and a reliance on grain transported from the interior. This resulted in a decline in the quality of training, military prowess, and logistic support (including weapons and equipment). The Beijing garrison was frequently used for construction projects, such as defensive positions, but more often for the building of palaces, temples, and private residences for officers and eunuchs of the imperial palace.
The defense of the northern border was primarily focused on the area between China and the steppe, as the outposts in present-day Inner Mongolia had been abandoned. The Great Wall had not yet been constructed and the border was only guarded by patrols between fortified cities. The defense of the northeast relied on three main fortified cities: Xuanfu, Datong, and Beijing. The fortifications of Beijing were not completed until 1445. In Xuanfu, there were 90,000 soldiers, with 35,000 ready for battle and 55,000 in training. Additionally, there were 25,000 horsemen and 9,000 firearms of various types, as well as 90,000 hand rockets. Datong had a stronger cavalry force, with 35,000 horses, and was supported by 160,000 men in Beijing. The reserve consisted of garrisons stationed in northeastern China, specifically in North Zhili, Shandong, and Henan.
The border patrol battalions were meant to hold off the enemy until the main forces arrived, but with Xuanfu only 180 km from Beijing, the defense system lacked depth and relied on a quick and decisive response to any attack.
The Mongols were divided into three groups: the Uriankhai in the southeast, the Eastern Mongols (also known as Tatars) in the east, and the Oirats in the west. After Arughtai, leader of the Eastern Mongols, was defeated in 1434, the Oirats took control over Mongolian Plateau. Their chief, Toghon, the Choros taishi, or "grand marshal", strengthened their authority by arranging for his daughter to marry the young khan of the Eastern Mongols, Toghtoa Bukha. After Toghon's death in 1440, his son Esen inherited the title of taishi and became the effective Mongol ruler. Esen was more ambitious than his father, and in 1443 and 1445, he launched attacks on Hami, an important city on the route from China to Central Asia near the Chinese border. In 1448, he successfully conquered it. He also attempted to gain the support of the Mongol divisions in the Ming army in the western Chinese province of Gansu. In the east, his authority extended to the borders of Korea. In Beijing, he was viewed as a threat by those who opposed Wang Zhen, a powerful eunuch who held great influence at the imperial court in the 1440s.
In their relationship with China, the Mongols were primarily interested in free trade, specifically in the exchange of horses for tea, silk, and other luxury goods. However, the Ming government imposed restrictions and regulations on trade, limiting it to a few designated border towns, with Datong being the main hub. As Esen's power and influence expanded, so did his dependence on these goods to maintain the loyalty of the Mongol tribes. This led to a significant number of Mongols in border markets in the late 1440s, with up to two thousand arriving each year. The large number of armed horsemen posed a serious security concern for the Ming authorities. As a result, the Ming government protested against the excessive number of incoming Mongols, causing a sharp deterioration in their relationship. In 1449, the Ming ultimately rejected the Mongols' request for goods and only provided them with a fifth of what was requested. This rejection led the Mongols to resort to force. The immediate cause of the war was Ming's refusal to grant Esen's request to marry an imperial princess for his son.
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Tumu Crisis
The Tumu Crisis, also known as the Crisis of the Tumu Fortress, or the Jisi Incident, was a border conflict between the Oirat Mongols and the Ming dynasty. In July 1449, Esen Taishi, leader of the Oirat Mongols, launched a large-scale, three-pronged invasion of China. Despite having capable generals, Emperor Yingzong of Ming, under the influence of eunuch Wang Zhen who dominated the Ming court at the time, made the decision to personally lead his armies into battle against Esen. On 1 September, the Ming army suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the much weaker Mongols, and the Emperor was captured. This defeat was one of the biggest military failures in the Ming dynasty's three centuries of existence, and it was largely attributed to the poor leadership of their army.
Esen was not prepared for the scale of his victory or for the capture of the Ming emperor. Initially, he attempted to use the captured Emperor to raise a ransom and planned to conquer the undefended Ming capital of Beijing. His plan was foiled due to the steadfast leadership of the commander in the capital, Yu Qian, and the ascension of the captured Emperor's brother, the Jingtai Emperor. Emperor Yingzong was eventually released in 1450, but his brother placed him under house arrest. Esen faced growing criticism for his failure to exploit his victory over the Ming and was assassinated six years after the battle in 1455.
The Ming dynasty was established in 1368 when Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), a former peasant rebel, overthrew the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and forced the Mongols to retreat back to the northern steppes. To counter persistent Mongol threats along the northern frontier, the Hongwu Emperor implemented significant military reforms and launched multiple military campaigns to secure the border regions. His son, the Yongle Emperor, further expanded these efforts by personally leading expeditions against the Mongols between 1410 and 1424. The decision to move the capital to Beijing in 1421 was also a strategic move to focus on northern defense. While these aggressive policies initially strengthened frontier security, they ultimately depleted Ming resources.
After the death of the Yongle Emperor in 1424, the defense of the northern borders began to deteriorate. Despite complaints from generals about the lack of resources, no action was taken. In 1435 and 1438, some garrisons were reinforced, but the overall situation remained unchanged. Inland, only half of the supposed 2.5 million soldiers in the Weisuo military system were actually performing their duties. Farms given to hereditary soldiers from Weisuo garrisons on the borders were often seized by officers, who became landowners while reducing their soldiers to farm laborers, leading to the collapse of local self-sufficiency and a reliance on grain transported from the interior. This resulted in a decline in the quality of training, military prowess, and logistic support (including weapons and equipment). The Beijing garrison was frequently used for construction projects, such as defensive positions, but more often for the building of palaces, temples, and private residences for officers and eunuchs of the imperial palace.
The defense of the northern border was primarily focused on the area between China and the steppe, as the outposts in present-day Inner Mongolia had been abandoned. The Great Wall had not yet been constructed and the border was only guarded by patrols between fortified cities. The defense of the northeast relied on three main fortified cities: Xuanfu, Datong, and Beijing. The fortifications of Beijing were not completed until 1445. In Xuanfu, there were 90,000 soldiers, with 35,000 ready for battle and 55,000 in training. Additionally, there were 25,000 horsemen and 9,000 firearms of various types, as well as 90,000 hand rockets. Datong had a stronger cavalry force, with 35,000 horses, and was supported by 160,000 men in Beijing. The reserve consisted of garrisons stationed in northeastern China, specifically in North Zhili, Shandong, and Henan.
The border patrol battalions were meant to hold off the enemy until the main forces arrived, but with Xuanfu only 180 km from Beijing, the defense system lacked depth and relied on a quick and decisive response to any attack.
The Mongols were divided into three groups: the Uriankhai in the southeast, the Eastern Mongols (also known as Tatars) in the east, and the Oirats in the west. After Arughtai, leader of the Eastern Mongols, was defeated in 1434, the Oirats took control over Mongolian Plateau. Their chief, Toghon, the Choros taishi, or "grand marshal", strengthened their authority by arranging for his daughter to marry the young khan of the Eastern Mongols, Toghtoa Bukha. After Toghon's death in 1440, his son Esen inherited the title of taishi and became the effective Mongol ruler. Esen was more ambitious than his father, and in 1443 and 1445, he launched attacks on Hami, an important city on the route from China to Central Asia near the Chinese border. In 1448, he successfully conquered it. He also attempted to gain the support of the Mongol divisions in the Ming army in the western Chinese province of Gansu. In the east, his authority extended to the borders of Korea. In Beijing, he was viewed as a threat by those who opposed Wang Zhen, a powerful eunuch who held great influence at the imperial court in the 1440s.
In their relationship with China, the Mongols were primarily interested in free trade, specifically in the exchange of horses for tea, silk, and other luxury goods. However, the Ming government imposed restrictions and regulations on trade, limiting it to a few designated border towns, with Datong being the main hub. As Esen's power and influence expanded, so did his dependence on these goods to maintain the loyalty of the Mongol tribes. This led to a significant number of Mongols in border markets in the late 1440s, with up to two thousand arriving each year. The large number of armed horsemen posed a serious security concern for the Ming authorities. As a result, the Ming government protested against the excessive number of incoming Mongols, causing a sharp deterioration in their relationship. In 1449, the Ming ultimately rejected the Mongols' request for goods and only provided them with a fifth of what was requested. This rejection led the Mongols to resort to force. The immediate cause of the war was Ming's refusal to grant Esen's request to marry an imperial princess for his son.