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Taisun Khan
Taisun Khan
Taisun Khan
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Taisun Khan (Mongolian script:ᠳᠠᠶᠢᠰᠤᠩ Mongolian: Тайсун Хаан; Chinese: 岱總汗), born Toghtoa Bukha (Chinese: 脫脫不花), (1416–1452) was a khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty, reigning from 1433 to 1452. Under his nominal rule, the Oirats successfully reunited the Mongol tribes and threatened the Ming dynasty to their south for the first time since the Battle of Kherlen in 1409.

Key Information

Early life

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After the previous khan Oyiradai's death in 1425, an internecine war lasting several years broke out among the Oirats under Mahamud (Bahamu, Batula) and western Mongol clans led by Gulichi's family. Meanwhile, the central and eastern Mongol clans proclaimed Adai Khan as the Great Khan shortly after Oyiradai's death in 1425.

Toghtoa Bukha was the eldest son of Ajai who was a posthumous birth of Elbeg Khan (d.1399) and Öljeitü the Beauty.[2] Toghtoa Bukha had two younger brothers, Agbarjin and Manduul. While wandering with his brothers in western Mongolia, Toghtoa Bukha met Mahamud's son and successor, Toghan Taishi of the Four Oirats. The latter married him to his daughter and wanted to use him as pawn. The Oirats crowned Toghtoa Bukha as their own khagan in 1433. This resulted in half a decade of simultaneous existence of two khans supported by opposing Mongol clans.

Reign

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Toghtoa Bukha Khan was an ambitious leader who aspired to gain real power and regaining the former glory of the Yuan dynasty. His ambitions inevitably lead to a conflict of interests with powerful Oirat nobles. Although the Oirats shared the same ambition of recovering the glory of Genghis Khan with the new khan, they were well aware of the fractured nature of the Mongol tribes. To buy time before being able to unite them, they first needed to make peace with the Ming dynasty. The Oirats were careful not to enrage the Ming by not officially proclaiming the Yuan and thereby obtained help from the Ming court in defeating the Khorchin. Adai Khan of the Khorchin was killed in 1438.

In 1439 Toghan installed Toghtoa Bukha as leader of the eastern Mongols under the title of Bogd Khagan Taisun of the Northern Yuan before the eight white yurts of Genghis Khan. Taisun Khan felt that the Ming was already weak enough to be dismissed, and openly proclaimed the Yuan dynasty with himself as Taisun (Taizong; 太宗), a move supported by most Mongols except the Oirats, who felt more time was needed to consolidate their gains. Fortunately, the Ming were indeed too weak to strike into the Mongol heartland like the deceased Yongle Emperor had done in the past. Ming showed its disapproval by calling Taisun Khan of the Northern Yuan instead of Taizong (太宗) of the Great Yuan.

After Toghan died, Taisun Khan made Toghan's son Esen Taishi a taishi, and his younger brother Agbarjin a jinong.[citation needed]

During the reign of Taisun Khan, Esen Taishi subjugated the Jurchens in Manchuria, the Kara Del kingdom around Hami City, and the Uriankhais (Tuvans) in Siberia.[3]

Conflict with Ming dynasty

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Despite his ambitions, Taisun Khan was still far more inclined towards peaceful relations with the Ming dynasty than his commander Esen. He kept a friendly relationship with the Ming court. His taishi, Esen, was even more ambitious and wanted to restore the glory of the Mongol Empire in name and territory. Esen first directed his attention to the Hami Oasis where the Ming ally, Borjigin prince descended from Chagatai Khan, ruled. Repeated raids and threats by Esen forced him to surrender in 1448.

Taisun Khan taking Ming Emperor captive.

Esen then attacked the Gansu region where the Mongol satellite states of the Ming, known collectively as the Three Guards, were located. The Fuyu guard was forced to flee, and Esen appointed his own governor in the area. Taisun Khan personally led the attack on the Taining guard. After that, Esen also plundered the Doyin Uriankhai guard, forcing them to surrender. With the submission of the Three Guards, the revived Yuan dynasty became a direct threat to Ming.

When the Ming refused the Mongols their request to allow additional Mongol envoys to China and a Chinese princess, Esen decided to invade the Ming. Taisun Khan was apprehensive of this and did not support Esen at first. However, he was induced to lead the easternmost force of Uriankhais to Liaodong in 1449. He besieged the city and ravaged its outskirts for 40 days while Esen crushed the Ming armies en route to Beijing.

After defeating the Ming army during the Tumu Crisis and capturing the Zhengtong Emperor the Mongols returned north. Taisun Khan treated the captured emperor kindly. Upon realizing that the Ming would not pay a ransom for the captured emperor, the Zhengtong Emperor was returned in 1450.

Decline

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Taisun Khan's consort, the elder sister of Esen, attempted to persuade the khan to make his sister's son the designated heir. The request was denied, causing Taisun and Esen to go to war in 1451. Esen promised Taisun Khan's brother, Agbarjin, the title of khan instead. Esen and Agbarjin besieged Karakorum where Taisun Khan was located. Because most of the eastern Mongols deserted to the Oirats, the Khan's troops were defeated in Turfan and he fled towards the Khentii Khan mountains and the Kherlen River with a few of his entourage. Taisun Khan was killed in 1452 by his former father-in-law, Tsabdan, while fleeing. Tsabdan later defected to Esen.

Wives and children

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His known wives and children included:

  • An Oirat princess, daughter of Toghan taishi. She bore a son named Abdan.
  • Altagana of the Khorlad tribe. The Khan and her son was Molon (Mulan).
  • Samar taifu who bore Markörgis.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Taisun Khan

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from Grokipedia
Taisun Khan (born Toghtoa Bukha; c. 1416–1453), also known as Tayisung Khan, was a of the dynasty who reigned from 1433 until his death in 1453. A descendant of through the line, he was installed as a nominal ruler by the Oirat leader Toghon Taishi to legitimize Oirat dominance over fragmented tribes, initially serving as a while real power rested with Oirat taishis. Under his titular authority, Oirat forces achieved a major victory against the in the of 1449, capturing Emperor Yingzong and demonstrating the restored military prowess of the despite internal divisions. Seeking to assert genuine sovereignty and revive Yuan imperial traditions, Taisun later conspired against his Oirat overlords, culminating in his defeat and death at the hands of in 1452 or 1453. His reign marked a period of Oirat ascendancy within the but also highlighted the fragility of Chinggisid legitimacy amid tribal rivalries and external pressures from .

Early Life and Background

Birth and Ancestry

Toghtoa Bukha, who later reigned as , was born in 1416 in the territories of the dynasty. He was the eldest son of Ajai, a posthumous son born to Elbeg Khan— from 1393 to 1399—and his consort Öljeitü the . As a member of the clan, Toghtoa Bukha traced his patrilineal descent to through the imperial lineage of the , with Elbeg Khan representing a direct link to the post-Yuan Mongol khagans. This Chinggisid heritage positioned him as a legitimate claimant to the khaganate, though his early life involved wandering amid the fragmented Mongol tribes before his elevation by Oirat leaders. Historical accounts affirm his claimed descent from Elbeg, underscoring the emphasis on genealogical purity in Mongol succession.

Education and Early Influences

Toghtoa Bukha, who would rule as , was born in 1416 as the eldest son of Ajai—a posthumous offspring of Elbeg Khan (r. 1370–1399)—and Öljeitü the , placing him within the direct Chinggisid from the Yuan imperial line. Following the death of in 1425, which exacerbated divisions among the eastern Mongol tribes, Toghtoa Bukha accompanied his father in nomadic wanderings across the steppes, a period characterized by instability and competition for legitimacy among claimants. During his youth, he was captured by Oirat forces and delivered to their prominent leader Toghon Taishi, initiating a formative association with the western Mongol confederation that transcended mere captivity to become one of strategic patronage. This Oirat influence represented the dominant early political force in his life, emphasizing alliances between Chinggisid figureheads and Oirat military prowess over independent eastern tribal authority, a dynamic that persisted into his in 1433 at approximately age 17. Historical chronicles offer no explicit accounts of formal tutelage or scholarly pursuits, reflecting the paucity of detailed records for figures prior to their prominence; any preparation likely conformed to customary Mongol noble practices focused on martial proficiency and steppe governance rather than sedentary literati traditions.

Ascension to Power

Installation by Oirats

In 1433, the , a powerful western Mongol confederation, enthroned Toghtoa Bukha (c. 1416–1452), a descendant through the lineage of earlier khans such as Nigu Leseg Khan, as to serve as their nominal ruler over the fragmented Eastern Mongol tribes. This installation, orchestrated by Oirat leader Toghon Taishi amid ongoing power struggles, directly opposed (r. 1415–1438), who held sway in the east and center with support from tribes like the Khalkha and . Lacking direct Genghisid ancestry themselves, the Oirats leveraged Taisun's royal bloodline to claim ideological legitimacy for their dominance, framing the move as a restoration of unified Mongol authority under the Great Yuan banner. The initiated a five-year period of dual khanates, with 's position initially precarious but bolstered by Oirat military backing, including forces that enabled campaigns to subdue rival factions. By 1438, Oirat-supported forces under defeated Adai's , resulting in Adai's death and the absorption of his adherents, which temporarily unified the steppe tribes from the to the under 's titular rule. Real decision-making authority, however, remained with Oirat taishis—Toghon until his death around 1439, followed by —highlighting 's role as a in a system where Oirat economic and martial superiority, derived from control over trade routes and horse herds, dictated policy. This Oirat strategy of installing a puppet khan reflected pragmatic : by invoking Genghisid symbolism, they mitigated tribal resistance rooted in traditional Mongol succession norms while positioning themselves to exploit Ming China's border weaknesses. Taisun's installation marked the Oirats' peak influence, enabling coordinated raids and the eventual in 1449, though it sowed seeds of tension as Taisun sought greater autonomy.

Initial Challenges and Consolidation

Upon installation as khagan in 1433 by the Oirats of western , Taisun Khan (Toghtoa Bukha) confronted the challenge of a divided Mongol , where eastern and central clans backed the rival as legitimate ruler. The , seeking to leverage Taisun's Chinggisid descent for legitimacy while wielding actual military power through taishi Togoon, initiated campaigns to eliminate this opposition. Taisun's forces, under Togoon's command, clashed with Adai's supporters, culminating in Adai's defeat and death in 1438 near Ejin, a pivotal event that removed the primary rival and enabled initial unification of Mongol tribes under Oirat-dominated authority. Togoon's successor, —who assumed the taishi role in 1439 following his father's death—intensified these efforts, directing conquests across remaining fragmented groups. Taisun himself led assaults on the Three Guards, Ming-aligned Mongol units, while Esen plundered the Doyin guard, compelling their surrender and integrating peripheral tribes into the . This consolidation marked the first significant reunification of since the early 15th-century fragmentation, though remained largely nominal, with Oirat leaders driving the process through superior organization and cavalry strength. Resistance persisted from autonomous tumens and khans wary of Oirat dominance, but strategic marriages—such as Esen's sister to —bolstered alliances and quelled dissent, temporarily stabilizing the structure.

Reign and Internal Politics

Efforts to Reunite Mongol Tribes

Taisun Khan, a descendant of from the clan, was enthroned as by Oirat leaders in 1433 to counter rival claimants and restore centralized authority over the splintered Mongol confederation, which had fragmented after the Yuan dynasty's collapse in 1368. His installation aimed to exploit Genghisid legitimacy, appealing to eastern and central tribes loyal to traditional khan lines, while Oirat military power enforced compliance. This strategic elevation marked the beginning of concerted efforts to bridge divisions between western and eastern Khalkha-Mongol groups, though Taisun's authority remained nominal, with actual command vested in Oirat taishis like Toghon. Military campaigns formed the core of reunification initiatives, targeting holdouts under , who controlled central and eastern clans from 1415 to 1438. In 1434, Oirat forces under Toghon Taishi defeated Adai's allies, including the execution of the tumen leader Arughtai, weakening eastern resistance and opening paths for submission. The culminating clash occurred in 1438 near Ejin, where overran Adai's positions, killing him and compelling surviving Khorchin and allied tribes to acknowledge Taisun's overlordship; this victory integrated approximately half of the Mongol population under a single banner for the first time since the early . Post-1438, Taisun issued calls for tribal allegiance, reinforced by Oirat garrisons and tribute systems that redistributed resources from subdued clans, fostering a fragile pan-Mongol identity. However, the unification proved ephemeral, as internal Oirat dominance bred resentments; Toghon died in 1439, succeeded by his son Esen, who prioritized expansion over consolidation, leading to renewed fractures by the 1450s. Despite these limitations, the 1438 campaign represented the most substantive progress toward reuniting the tribes during 's reign, temporarily halting the into rival khanates.

Relations with Oirat Leaders

Taisun Khan, a descendant of , was enthroned by Oirat leaders in 1433 as of the to provide Chinggisid legitimacy to their efforts at unifying the Mongol tribes under Oirat . This arrangement positioned Taisun as a nominal , with actual vested in Oirat taishis who wielded military and administrative control. Following the death of Toghon Taishi, his son assumed the role of taishi under Taisun around the early 1440s, further entrenching Oirat dominance. Esen oversaw the subjugation of eastern Mongol rivals, including victories over Arughtai in 1434 and another khan in 1438, thereby enabling the reunification of Mongol and Oirat tumens into a cohesive force. Taisun's position facilitated this process by lending traditional authority to Oirat initiatives, though Esen's ambitions extended to restoring Mongol imperial glory through expansionist policies. The relationship between Taisun and Esen involved coordinated actions, such as joint envoys to the and the orchestration of border raids that culminated in the of August 1449. During this campaign, Oirat cavalry under Esen's direct command decisively defeated a Ming of approximately 500,000, capturing Emperor Yingzong (Zhengtong) and demonstrating the efficacy of their partnership in military endeavors. This collaboration marked a high point in Oirat-Mongol integration, temporarily halting Ming dominance in the north and bolstering Esen's prestige as the leader.

Military Engagements

Campaigns Against Rival Khans

Taisun Khan, installed as khan with Oirat backing around 1433–1439, pursued military actions to neutralize rival claimants to the throne and subdue fragmented tribal groups resisting unification under his nominal authority. These efforts were often led jointly with Oirat leaders like Esen Taishi, leveraging Oirat military superiority to assert dominance over eastern Mongol factions that recognized alternative khans or maintained . A pivotal campaign occurred in 1438, when Taisun Khan and executed a surprise attack on , a Chinggisid rival proclaimed Great Khan by eastern Mongol clans in opposition to Oirat influence. Adai's forces were defeated, and he was captured and executed, removing a major obstacle to Taisun's legitimacy and facilitating Oirat-led reunification of Mongol tribes by that year. This victory extended Oirat control from in the west to Jurchen territories in the east, though Taisun remained a khan. Subsequent operations targeted semi-independent Mongol groups, including the , Onniud, Züchid, and Khorchin tribes, which had historically aligned with eastern khans or Ming interests. In the 1420s–1440s, Taisun's forces subjugated eastern Uriankhai elements through direct military pressure, while broader unification drives involved attracting or coercing these tribes via raids and alliances. By 1446, Taisun mobilized a force of four tümen (approximately 40,000 warriors) to suppress internal rebellions and consolidate loyalty among holdout factions. These campaigns extended to the Three Guards—Doyin , Fuyu, and Taining—Mongol units settled near Ming borders after submitting to Chinese authority. Taisun personally directed assaults on the Taining Guard, while Esen plundered Doyin Uriankhai holdings, compelling their surrender and reintegration into Mongol ranks to prevent rival power bases. Such actions, though successful in temporarily reuniting tribes under Oirat , sowed seeds of resentment that later undermined Taisun's position.

Wars with the Ming Dynasty

Taisun Khan's interactions with the involved diplomatic overtures for recognition of his status as legitimate successor to the Yuan imperial line, coupled with escalating border raids and military pressures driven largely by his Oirat subordinates, particularly . While Taisun maintained correspondence with Ming envoys and favored negotiated tribute arrangements, including demands for increased trade missions and a royal marriage alliance, Ming refusals—rooted in rejection of Mongol claims to imperial continuity—prompted retaliatory actions. These began with targeted strikes on Ming-allied Mongol groups known as the Three Guards (Doyin Uriyangkhai, Taining, and Fuyu), which were subdued through plunder and coercion in the late 1440s, extending Oirat influence into region territories. The most significant confrontation occurred in 1449 during the , when led an Oirat invasion of northern , defeating a Ming of approximately 500,000 at Tumu Fortress on September 1 and capturing Emperor Yingzong (Zhengtong Emperor). Concurrently, Taisun directed Uriankhai auxiliaries in a prolonged 40-day of Liaodong, diverting Ming reinforcements. Esen's forces advanced to besiege Beijing but withdrew after failing to extract concessions, as Ming regent Empress Dowager Sun refused ransom or territorial demands. Yingzong was released in 1450 following negotiations, treated with relative courtesy under Taisun's oversight, though the episode yielded no lasting Mongol gains and strained bilateral relations without formal . Subsequent engagements remained limited to sporadic raids, as internal Oirat-Mongol tensions and Ming fortifications curtailed large-scale invasions. Taisun's of a new Yuan-era in the 1440s symbolized aspirational revival of Mongol but did not translate into sustained success against Ming defenses, highlighting the khan's nominal authority amid Esen's command. By 1452, these frontier pressures contributed to Taisun's domestic vulnerabilities, though Ming chronicles attribute the era's threats primarily to Oirat aggression rather than unified strategy.

Decline and Fall

Rising Tensions with Esen Taishi

Following the of 1449, in which captured the Ming emperor but failed to secure lasting gains, his authority among the Mongol tribes waned, emboldening Taisun Khan—who had been installed as a nominal Chinggisid ruler under Oirat oversight—to challenge Esen's dominance. This shift marked a departure from their prior alliance, where Esen had acted as (prime minister) supporting Taisun's in 1433 and subsequent unification efforts against eastern Mongol rivals. Tensions intensified amid power struggles, including disputes over military command and tribal loyalties, as sought greater from Oirat control. By 1452, these frictions erupted into open warfare, with conspiring against Esen and the two factions clashing in battle; Esen secured victory, weakening Taisun's position and fracturing Mongol unity into rival camps aligned with the Khalkha and Oirat leadership. Esen's triumph in 1452 paved the way for his 1453 declaration as khan, supplanting the Chinggisid and further alienating traditionalist tribes under , whose brother briefly betrayed him before being eliminated by . This phase of intra-Mongol strife, rooted in Esen's overreach beyond advisory roles, underscored the fragility of Oirat-Chinggisid alliances and set the stage for 's ultimate downfall.

Final Conflict and Death

In 1452, escalating disputes over authority and succession led Taisun Khan to challenge militarily, aiming to reduce Oirat oversight and reassert Chinggisid primacy. Esen's forces prevailed in clashes within the Khalkha heartland, scattering Taisun's army and compelling him to retreat toward the region. Fleeing the defeat, was killed by his father-in-law, who then defected to Esen Taishi's camp. This betrayal, amid broader intrigue involving potential allies like Taisun's brother , sealed the khan's fate and eliminated the nominal figurehead. died in 1453, effectively ending his rule and enabling Esen to assume the title of the following year.

Legacy and Family

Immediate Succession and Aftermath

Following Taisun Khan's execution in 1453 amid rising tensions with , his younger brother , who had betrayed him in pursuit of the throne, briefly positioned himself as a claimant but was swiftly killed by Oirat forces loyal to Esen. Esen, a non-Genghisid Oirat leader, then proclaimed himself khan of the , adopting titles echoing the Yuan imperial tradition to legitimize his rule over the fragmented tribes. This usurpation, unprecedented in sidelining direct descent, provoked immediate backlash from eastern and central Mongol factions accustomed to Genghisid supremacy. Esen's authority endured only until 1455, when he was assassinated by Mongol rebels, including elements led by figures like Alag Darqan, amid widespread rejection of Oirat dominance. In the ensuing power vacuum, Taisun's young son Markörgis was installed as khan circa 1454, ruling under Oirat regents such as Dogholon Taishi and Bulay amid persistent internecine strife. Markörgis's nominal reign, lasting until around 1465, failed to restore unity, as eastern tribes resisted Oirat influence and local warlords proliferated. The aftermath accelerated the decline of centralized Mongol authority, shattering the fragile reunification Taisun had pursued and ushering in decades of tribal warfare between and eastern groups. Oirat supremacy waned decisively, enabling the eventual rise of eastern leaders like , while the khanate's legitimacy eroded further without a strong Genghisid figurehead. This fragmentation persisted until broader consolidations in the late , underscoring the causal role of dynastic legitimacy in sustaining nomadic confederations.

Wives and Descendants

Taisun Khan's known consorts included an Oirat princess, daughter of Toghan Taishi, who bore him a son named Abdan. Another consort, Altagana of the Khorlad tribe, was the mother of his son Molon (also known as Mulan). Samar Taifu gave birth to his youngest son, Markörgis. Molon succeeded briefly as khan following the turmoil after Taisun's death but was killed in 1466 during conflicts with rival Mongol leaders. Markörgis, aged approximately eight in 1455, was installed as khan with Ming support but assassinated around 1465 without issue. Little is recorded about Abdan's fate or lineage beyond his birth. No prominent further descendants are attested in surviving accounts, as Taisun's line ended with the early deaths of his sons amid Oirat-Mongol power struggles.

References

  1. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/AsiaMongolsYuanNorth.htm
  2. https://tufs.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/1764/files/jaas027008.pdf
  3. https://kingsandgenerals.libsyn.com/275-history-of-the-mongols-afterword
  4. https://www.persee.fr/doc/befeo_0336-1519_1994_num_81_1_2245
  5. https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Taisun_Khan
  6. https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/3fbc6d22-72f0-4a53-9800-c34083564375/content
  7. https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/43934/whats-the-difference-between-khan-and-taishi-taisha
  8. https://www.alamy.com/mongolia-tayisung-khan-toghtoa-bukha-r-14391453-khagan-of-the-northern-yuan-dynasty-20th-century-taisun-khantayisung-khan-toghtoa-bukha-1416-1453-was-crowned-khagan-in-1433-by-the-oirats-of-western-mongolia-who-wished-to-use-him-as-a-pawn-he-fought-against-adai-khan-the-khagan-of-the-eastern-and-central-mongol-clans-to-try-and-reunite-mongolia-killing-him-in-1438-he-waged-war-against-ming-china-as-part-of-his-ambitions-to-restore-the-glory-of-the-mongol-empire-even-capturing-the-zhengtong-emperor-however-he-was-betrayed-by-his-younger-brother-agbarjin-and-died-in-1453-image344230594.html
  9. https://warhistory.org/%40msw/article/the-mongol-oirat-conflict
  10. https://alchetron.com/Esen-Taishi
  11. https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstreams/3fbc6d22-72f0-4a53-9800-c34083564375/download
  12. https://cristoraul.org/english/readinghall/Doors-of-Wisdom/HISTORY-OF-THE-MONGOLS/History-of-the-Mongols_chapter-11-THE-CHOROS.html
  13. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-mongols.html
  14. https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004216358/B9789004216358-s025.pdf
  15. https://warhistory.org/fr/%40msw/article/the-mongol-oirat-conflict
  16. https://alchetron.com/Molon-Khan
  17. https://historum.com/t/are-there-direct-descendants-of-genghis-khan-today.194020/page-2
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