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Works of Love
Works of Love
Works of Love
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Works of Love (Danish: Kjerlighedens Gjerninger) is a book by Søren Kierkegaard, written in 1847. It is one of the works which he published under his own name, as opposed to his more famous "pseudonymous" works. Works of Love deals primarily with the Christian conception of agapic love (Greek: agape), in contrast with erotic love (eros) or preferential love (philia) given to friends and family. Kierkegaard uses this value/virtue to understand the existence and relationship of the individual Christian. Having helped found existentialism, he uses it and a high level of theology, citing the scriptures of the Christian Bible.

Key Information

Many chapters take a mention of love from the New Testament and center reflections about the transfer of individuals from secular modes (the stages of the aesthetic and ethical) to genuine religious experience and existence. Since human experience is key to understanding Kierkegaard, the actual relationships and experiences of disciples and of Christ are characterized here as tangible models for behavior.

Kierkegaard as a Christian ethicist (represented by this work) is likely to be considered distinct from many ways in which the religion's mainstream seems to function from the viewpoint of an outside observer. This is not only a function of Christian existentialism but also of his time period and political events occurring in his native Denmark.

Themes

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  • Part One — Topics include: Love's Hidden Life and Its Recognisability by Its Fruits, You Shall Love, You Shall Love Your Neighbor, Love Is the Fulfilling of the Law, Love Is a Matter of Conscience, Our Duty to Love Those We See, and Our Duty to Be in the Debt of Love to Each Other
  • Part Two — Topics include: Love Builds Up, Love Believes All Things and Yet Is Never Deceived, Love Hopes All Things and Yet Is Never Put to Shame, Love Seeks Not Its Own, Love Hides the Multiplicity of Sins, Love Abides, Mercifulness, a Work of Love, Even If It Can Give Nothing and Is Capable of Doing Nothing, The Victory of Reconciliation in Love Which Wins the Vanquished, The Work of Love
    in Remembering One Dead     and The Work of Love in Praising Love

Style

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The Works as Kierkegaard himself states are Christian reflections and not discourses. It is written in a rhetorical style where he often repeats his words and gives numerous examples.

[edit]
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Works of Love

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Works of Love (Danish: Kjerlighedens Gjerninger) is a philosophical and theological by the Danish thinker , first published in 1847. Unlike many of his other major works issued under pseudonyms, it was released under Kierkegaard's own name as a series of Christian reflections structured as 15 deliberations in discourse form, intended to be read aloud. The book centers on the New Testament commandment to "love your neighbor as yourself," presenting neighbor-love (næste-kjerlighed) as a divine duty that transcends personal feelings or preferences. Kierkegaard contrasts this selfless, God-commanded agape with more earthly forms of love, such as erotic attraction and friendship, which he views as preferential and potentially self-serving if not grounded in Christian ethics. He argues that true love originates from God's changeless love for humanity and manifests through concrete "works" rather than abstract emotions, requiring self-denial, equality toward all individuals, and even love for enemies. Divided into two parts comprising fifteen deliberations, the text draws on biblical passages to illustrate how love's inner essence becomes visible in ethical actions and relationships. Prefaces to each part underscore the focus on love's practical expressions over speculative theory, positioning the work as a call to spiritual awakening amid Kierkegaard's broader critique of institutionalized Christianity.

Publication and Context

Historical Context

In the mid-19th century, experienced its , a period of cultural and intellectual flourishing from approximately 1800 to 1850, characterized by economic prosperity, artistic achievements, and optimistic views on societal progress following the and the loss of in 1814. This era fostered a sense of national confidence and rational enlightenment, yet critiqued it as promoting superficial that masked a deeper spiritual complacency among the populace. The Danish Lutheran Church, established as the since the , played a central role in this cultural , but Kierkegaard viewed it as complicit in diluting authentic personal through institutional conformity and emerging intellectual trends. and Hegelian philosophy, which dominated Danish academia in the , emphasized systematic reason and historical progress, reducing to an abstract ethical system rather than a passionate, individual commitment. Kierkegaard argued that these influences fostered a "Christendom" where nominal adherence replaced genuine religious inwardness, prompting his emphasis on self-denying love as a corrective to such secularized . Kierkegaard's personal experiences further shaped his exploration of self-denying love, including his broken engagement to in 1841, which he later framed as a necessary sacrifice for his calling, and the profound influence of his father, Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard, whose melancholy and tales of familial guilt instilled in him a sense of existential duty. These elements indirectly motivated his reflections on love beyond preferential attachments, without delving into exhaustive biography. The 1846 Corsair Affair, a public scandal where Kierkegaard was ridiculed in the satirical newspaper The Corsair for months, intensified his isolation and critique of Danish society, leading him to transition from pseudonymous writings to direct, edifying works addressed openly to readers.

Writing and Publication

Works of Love was composed in 1847 and published on September 29, 1847, by the Copenhagen-based publisher C.A. Reitzel. The original Danish title is Kjerlighedens Gjerninger, and the first edition spanned 428 pages, divided into two parts of 224 and 204 pages, respectively. Unlike many of Kierkegaard's earlier publications, which appeared under pseudonyms, this work was issued under his own name, underscoring a deliberate emphasis on personal responsibility and direct authorship in its Christian reflections. The book was released concurrently with Kierkegaard's Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits (March 13, 1847), signaling a pivotal transition in his oeuvre toward more explicit and unmediated Christian address. This non-pseudonymous approach reflected Kierkegaard's intent to confront readers personally with the demands of , moving away from the indirect communication of his aesthetic and philosophical stages. Initial circulation was limited, as Kierkegaard's writings appealed primarily to a niche audience during his lifetime and did not achieve widespread popularity until later. The modest print run aligned with the specialized reception of his edifying works in 1840s , where cultural and theological debates shaped a select readership.

Relation to Kierkegaard's Oeuvre

Works of Love, published in 1847 under Kierkegaard's own name following the Corsair Affair, occupies a pivotal position in his oeuvre as one of the key edifying signed works, which emphasize direct, upbuilding reflections on Christian themes in contrast to the indirect, dialectical approach of his pseudonymous authorship. Unlike the pseudonymous texts that employ fictional personas to explore existential possibilities, the signed works like Works of Love aim to edify the reader through personal appropriation of biblical truths, fostering inward transformation rather than speculative philosophy. This shift underscores Kierkegaard's intent to guide individuals toward subjective engagement with Christianity, prioritizing lived faith over objective systems of thought. In contrast to pseudonymous works such as Either/Or (1843), where preferential loves like erotic passion and romantic attachment are examined through aesthetic and psychological lenses—often portraying them as stages of self-indulgent or ethical development—Works of Love elevates Christian agape as the sole eternal form of love, transcending natural inclinations toward specific individuals. The earlier text, voiced through figures like the aesthete and Judge William, celebrates erotic love and marriage as preferential bonds that fulfill personal desires, yet Kierkegaard later critiques these as insufficient without the divine command to love the neighbor universally. This juxtaposition highlights Works of Love's role in reorienting love from subjective preference to objective duty rooted in Scripture. Works of Love extends the ethical and religious stages outlined in pseudonymous texts like (1845) and (1846), transforming the abstract progression from aesthetic sensuality and ethical commitment to religious inwardness into a concrete ethic of love as duty. Where delves into romantic and reflective forms of love within the ethical sphere, and the stresses subjective truth in the religious leap, Works of Love applies these stages practically by insisting that true love fulfills the commandment to love the neighbor, demanding and eternal responsibility. This connection bridges Kierkegaard's earlier explorations of existential spheres with a mature Christian deliberation that integrates love into the highest stage of faith. As an edifying work, Works of Love prefigures Kierkegaard's later "attack upon " (1854–1855), critiquing nominal 's superficiality by insisting on authentic, neighbor-oriented love over cultural complacency, thus laying groundwork for his direct assaults on the Danish state church's betrayal of ideals. Through its emphasis on subjective appropriation—where love becomes an inward, God-centered act rather than an outward institution— the text challenges readers to embody personally, anticipating the radical of Kierkegaard's final phase. This positioning reinforces Works of Love as a of his theological project, urging decisive commitment amid existential ambiguity.

Book Structure

Overall Organization

Works of Love is divided into two main series of deliberations: the first series consists of six deliberations presented in the form of discourses, while the second series comprises nine further deliberations. The book opens with a preface in the first series, where Kierkegaard directly addresses the reader, emphasizing love as an eternal duty that remains unchanged regardless of circumstances. The deliberations are structured as reflective expositions centered on scriptural commands, particularly from the , such as the injunction to love one's neighbor. This form blends biblical with dialectical reasoning and exhortative elements, inviting the reader to contemplate the implications of Christian love in . Rather than following a strict progression, the text employs a spiraling exploration, repeatedly circling back to core ideas on love's nature and practice to deepen understanding without linear resolution. The original Danish edition spans approximately 300 pages, published in 1847, while later translations and editions vary slightly in length. Some editions include marginal notes by Kierkegaard, drawn from his manuscripts, as well as opening and closing prayers that frame the deliberations devotionally. This organizational approach positions it as a meditative guide rather than a systematic .

Part One: Deliberations in the Form of Discourses

Part One consists of six deliberations that examine the internal and hidden dimensions of Christian love, presenting it as a grounded in God's command rather than in human inclinations or preferences. Kierkegaard structures these reflections to reveal love's and recognizability through its fruits, while shielding it from the variability of earthly emotions. This series underscores love's rootedness in divine reciprocity and equality, focusing on its practice in everyday visibility and beyond temporal bounds, without preference for the self or others. In the first deliberation, titled "Love's Hidden Life and Its Recognizability by Its Fruits", Kierkegaard argues that true resides inwardly and cannot be directly observed or objectified, yet it becomes evident through its outward effects, akin to a known by its as stated in Luke 6:44. He contrasts this with superficial expressions of affection, which produce only words and platitudes, emphasizing that Christian 's hidden vitality ensures its authenticity and fruitfulness in actions rather than displays. The second deliberation, "You Shall Love", portrays love as the "royal law" commanded by , transforming it from a fleeting inclination into an eternal that safeguards it against change. Kierkegaard asserts that only as a does love achieve blessed independence and inward freedom, free from the caprice of emotions or , thereby rooting it firmly in obedience to the divine will. "You Shall Love the Neighbor", the third deliberation, redefines the neighbor not as a specific but as every encountered, establishing equality in love irrespective of social distinctions or personal merit. Drawing briefly on Matthew 22:39, which instructs to love the neighbor as oneself, Kierkegaard highlights how this command fosters an internal equality before , eliminating preferential attachments and ensuring love's impartiality. The fourth deliberation, "Our Duty to Love the People We See", shifts attention to the practical application of in immediate, visible interactions, insisting that duty requires loving others precisely as they are, without idealization or alteration. Kierkegaard stresses that this visible duty counters the temptation to love abstractly or preferentially, anchoring 's hidden essence in concrete, daily encounters that demand . In "Our Duty to Remain in the Love That God Has for Us", the fifth deliberation, Kierkegaard explores the reciprocal nature of divine and human , positing that humans must continually abide in God's prior to sustain their own. This inward remaining in divine prevents self-preference from distorting it, ensuring that love remains a perpetual of and to . The sixth and final deliberation of Part One, "The Work of Love in Recollecting One Who Is Dead", illustrates 's transcendence over time by focusing on remembrance of the deceased, where operates without expectation of reciprocity or earthly relations. Kierkegaard maintains that this recollection reveals 's eternal validity, hidden from temporal concerns, as it builds up the lover inwardly through faithful, unselfish . Collectively, these deliberations portray Christian love as an internal duty commanded by , concealed from self-preferential distortions and manifested through eternal, equitable practice.

Part Two: Further Deliberations

Part Two of Works of Love consists of nine deliberations that shift focus to the outward and active dimensions of Christian love, portraying it as a dynamic force that edifies others, overcomes obstacles like and , and manifests in everyday interactions. Unlike the more introspective discourses of Part One, these deliberations illustrate love's practical works in social and communal settings, often presupposing the presence of love in others to foster growth and reconciliation. Drawing on the biblical depiction of love's attributes in 1 Corinthians 13, Kierkegaard emphasizes how such love endures eternally, triumphs over temporal changes, and reveals itself through selfless actions that benefit the neighbor. In the first deliberation, "Love Builds Up," Kierkegaard explores love's edifying power within the Christian community, likening it to a spiritual construction that strengthens others without . Love builds up by presupposing the existence of love in the beloved, thereby encouraging its development rather than tearing down through judgment or suspicion; this process mirrors the quiet, sustaining work of nature and contrasts with divisive speech that puffs up the self. Referencing 1 Corinthians 8:1—"love edifieth"—Kierkegaard argues that true edification arises from , where the lover restrains personal impulses to uplift the neighbor's eternal . The second deliberation, "Love Believes All Things—and Yet Is Never Deceived," addresses love's unwavering trust, which operates on the same empirical knowledge as mistrust but chooses as its defining stance. Kierkegaard posits that love believes all things not out of naivety, but because belief itself constitutes love's essence, rendering deception impossible since love does not seek verification through . Grounded in 1 Corinthians 13:7, this trust avoids the pitfalls of , which isolates individuals, and instead promotes communal by assuming the best in others despite evidence to the contrary. In "Love Hopes All Things—and Yet Is Never in Error," the third deliberation, Kierkegaard describes hope as love's eternal orientation, which unites the temporal and the divine to prevent disillusionment. Love hopes all things by presupposing that love underlies even apparent failures or sins in the neighbor, as exemplified by the biblical who hopes for his son's return without demanding proof. This hope, rooted in 1 Corinthians 13:7, ensures love remains unashamed because it is grounded in , fostering rather than rupture in relationships. The fourth deliberation, "Love Does Not Seek Its Own," underscores love's selflessness as a rejection of , where the lover eliminates distinctions of "mine" and "yours" to recognize the neighbor's individuality. Kierkegaard argues that seeking one's own interest corrupts love into , whereas true love builds up by focusing solely on the other's good, even at personal cost. Drawing from 1 Corinthians 13:5, this principle transforms interactions into mutual edification, free from the or that plagues preferential affections. "Love Hides a Multitude of Sins," the fifth deliberation, portrays as an active work of that covers offenses without exposing or dwelling on them. Kierkegaard explains that hides sins by presupposing the neighbor's underlying goodness, thereby preventing judgment from escalating into condemnation and allowing grace to prevail. This act, inspired by 1 Peter 4:8 but aligned with 1 Corinthians 13's enduring qualities, demonstrates 's power to heal relational wounds and promote spiritual growth over retribution. The sixth deliberation, "Love Abides," highlights love's enduring constancy amid life's changes, positioning it as the eternal foundation that outlasts all temporal bonds. Kierkegaard asserts that love abides by bearing burdens without , presupposing its own presence in the face of ingratitude or misunderstanding, thus providing stability in an unstable world. Based on 1 Corinthians 13:13, this abiding quality ensures love's victory over time, death, and human frailty, serving as a model for faithful persistence in neighborly relations. In the seventh deliberation, "Mercifulness, a Work of Love, Even If It Can Give Nothing...," Kierkegaard presents as love's compassionate expression, valuable for its intent regardless of tangible outcomes. involves feeling the neighbor's as one's own and responding , even when powerless to alleviate it, thereby fulfilling love's through heartfelt . This work triumphs over indifference, emphasizing that true mercifulness resides in the spirit rather than material aid, aligning with love's selfless core. The eighth deliberation, "The Victory of the Conciliatory Spirit in Love...," depicts love's reconciliatory power as a conquest that wins the vanquished through and offenses. Kierkegaard illustrates how the conciliatory spirit absorbs enmity without retaliation, transforming conflict into unity by presupposing love's potential in the offender. This victory, a visible work of love, overcomes division and by mirroring divine , ultimately strengthening the community against hatred's isolating effects. Finally, "The Work of Love in Praising Love," the deliberation, concludes the by extolling the eternal and triumphant nature of Christian , urging readers to it through their actions and to recognize it as the fulfillment of 's commandment. Kierkegaard emphasizes that praising love involves living it out in concrete works, presupposing its presence in all and ensuring its perpetual edification of the neighbor and self before .

Central Themes

Christian Agape versus Preferential Loves

In Works of Love, presents Christian as a selfless, divine command to love the neighbor indiscriminately, rooted in and independent of personal inclinations or merits. This is not a spontaneous but a grounded in God's eternal , directed toward every being as the neighbor without preference or exclusion. defines itself through the act of loving, rather than being shaped by the qualities of its object, making it the foundational form of in . Kierkegaard sharply contrasts agape with preferential loves, particularly (romantic or possessive love) and (friendship or selective affinity), which he characterizes as temporal phenomena driven by feelings, drives, passions, and immediacy. These forms are "defined by the object," focusing on the beloved or friend as uniquely attractive, and thus inherently selfish illusions or "dreams" when viewed as ultimate or eternal. Eros seeks possession and fulfillment through the particular individual, while arises from shared inclinations, both elevating the self over the other in ways that obscure true . While acknowledging preferential loves as valid within the temporal realm—such as in or companionship—Kierkegaard insists they remain subordinate to and must be transformed by it to avoid sinfulness. If absolutized or prioritized, and become idolatrous, fostering exclusivity that contradicts the eternal equality of loving the neighbor and leading to spiritual deception. purifies these earthly affections without abolishing them, ensuring they align with the divine command rather than dominating the . The scriptural foundation for this distinction lies in Jesus' "new commandment" in John 13:34-35: "A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another: just as I have loved you, you also are to love one another." Kierkegaard interprets this as Christ's model of indiscriminate, sacrificial love, surpassing natural affections and revealing disciples through its practice. He critiques contemporary culture for exalting eros and philia as ideals, thereby obscuring the duty of agape and reducing love to sensuous or selective preferences that evade the rigor of Christian self-denial. This worldly elevation, he argues, abolishes the eternal validity of love by confounding it with temporal illusions.

The Command to Love the Neighbor

In Søren Kierkegaard's Works of Love, the neighbor is defined as every human being, irrespective of personal merit, attractiveness, social status, or potential for reciprocity, standing in direct opposition to the natural human tendency toward preferential affections. This conception underscores the universality of Christian love, where the neighbor emerges not from subjective choice or emotional inclination but from the divine imperative to recognize equality in all persons before God. The command to love the neighbor originates in the biblical injunctions of and Matthew 22:39, which mandate loving one's neighbor as oneself, transforming love from a voluntary sentiment into an obligatory that liberates the from the burdens of selective and anxiety over worthiness. As Kierkegaard articulates, this commandment requires loving all people unconditionally and indiscriminately, ensuring that love remains a steadfast ethical task rather than a fluctuating passion. By framing love as a divine order, it elevates the act beyond human calculation, making it accessible and binding for every . This imperative carries profound implications for human relations, dismantling social hierarchies and distinctions by affirming the eternal equality of all souls, such that even the is reconstituted as a neighbor deserving of the same . Kierkegaard employs a dialectical approach to illustrate how loving the neighbor effects a transformation in the : in extending without expectation, one confronts one's own infinite indebtedness to grace, fostering and a deeper awareness of personal imperfection. This process reveals the 's need for divine , turning outward into an inward reckoning that purifies the lover's disposition. Kierkegaard critiques selective or preferential love as inherently flawed, arguing that it fosters partiality, , and judgmental attitudes by prioritizing the deserving over the undeserving, thereby undermining true equality and leading to ethical fragmentation. In contrast, neighbor-love demands , rooting out selfishness and preventing the lover from elevating personal preferences into a false measure of worth. Such discernment highlights the command's role in cultivating a more authentic, God-centered .

Duty, Self-Denial, and Eternal Validity of Love

In Works of Love, Søren Kierkegaard presents love as an ethical duty grounded in the divine command to love one's neighbor, rather than a spontaneous emotion or personal preference. This duty ensures the constancy of love, as it transforms fleeting inclinations into a willed commitment that endures regardless of changing circumstances or feelings. Kierkegaard argues that "when it is a duty to love, this changes the aspect of everything," making love secure and infinite by rooting it in obedience to God rather than subjective choice. Central to this duty is the requirement of , which involves renouncing and to prioritize the neighbor's equality before . Kierkegaard draws on 1 Corinthians 13:5, stating that true "seeketh not her own," mirroring Christ's sacrificial love and demanding the lover to overcome natural partiality. This self-renunciation purifies love from , allowing it to build up the other without seeking reciprocity or advantage, as "only in can one effectually praise , because is love." Through , the individual aligns with the religious stage of existence, transcending the aesthetic pursuit of pleasure and the ethical focus on social roles. The eternal validity of love stems from its divine origin and -bound nature, distinguishing it from temporal, preferential loves that fade with time or . Kierkegaard emphasizes that love, when elevated by , "has undergone the transformation of the eternal," gaining continuity and faithfulness that persist beyond earthly life, as it is anchored in God's unchanging . This eternal quality resolves the despair of infinite choice in human relations, paradoxically freeing the individual by binding love to an absolute command, thus ensuring its abiding presence in the religious life.

Love's Works in Recollection and Mercy

In Works of Love, Søren Kierkegaard presents the recollection of the dead as the purest manifestation of Christian love, unmarred by any possibility of reciprocity or self-interest, since the deceased can neither repay nor alter the relationship. This act, he contends, serves as a profound test of love's eternal validity, revealing whether it persists beyond temporal changes and earthly dependencies, as it is performed solely for the sake of the loved one in eternity. Kierkegaard emphasizes that such recollection fosters a faithful continuity with the living as well, training the lover to extend unselfish care without demand. Kierkegaard further elaborates on as an essential work of , asserting that mercifulness fulfills the command even when it yields no material aid or visible success, prioritizing the inward disposition of over outward efficacy. Drawing from , he aligns this with the Beatitude "Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain " (Matthew 5:7), portraying as an expression of divine likeness that comforts the regardless of powerlessness. In this view, even the smallest act of empathetic regard—such as silently acknowledging another's pain—constitutes a merciful work, accessible to all believers. Central to love's practical expressions is its capacity to hide a multitude of sins, where operates without expectation of restitution, enveloping faults in , mitigating explanations, or outright pardon. Kierkegaard explains that true does not expose or dwell on offenses but covers them, thereby preserving the relationship's integrity and echoing the redemptive nature of divine . This hiding is not deception but an active choice to believe the best, fostering reconciliation without tallying debts. Kierkegaard depicts love as both building up and abiding, wherein it constructively edifies the neighbor through , enduring presence that withstands trials and promotes spiritual growth. In everyday contexts, these works appear in acts like forbearing annoyances or consistently supporting others without fanfare, revealing love's fruits in quiet persistence rather than dramatic gestures. Such abiding love, rooted in , ensures its eternal endurance, as the lover remains steadfast in God's love.

Influences and Interpretations

Biblical and Theological Sources

Kierkegaard's Works of Love is profoundly rooted in specific passages that articulate the nature and imperative of Christian . Central to the text is 1 Corinthians 13, where Paul enumerates 's enduring qualities—patient, kind, not envious or boastful, bearing all things, believing all things, hoping all things, and enduring all things—as the essence of , which abides eternally unlike fleeting gifts such as or knowledge. This chapter provides the scriptural foundation for Kierkegaard's delineation of as selfless and unchangeable, serving as a recurring touchstone throughout the deliberations. Likewise, John 13:34's "" that disciples one another as Christ has loved them establishes as a divine mandate modeled on Christ's sacrificial example, emphasizing its relational and imitative character. Complementing these, Matthew 22:37-39 presents the greatest commandments—to with all one's heart, soul, and mind, and to one's neighbor as oneself—forming a dual axis that integrates vertical devotion to with horizontal toward others, which Kierkegaard interprets as the core of . The theological concept of , drawn from usage, underpins Kierkegaard's vision of as God's own eternal attribute, selfless and directed outward without preference or reciprocity. This divine contrasts with human inclinations toward erotic or familial bonds, positioning agape as the fulfilling expression of 's nature in 1 John 4:8 (" is "). Neighbor , meanwhile, represents a synthesis of precepts, particularly Leviticus 19:18's command to one's neighbor as oneself, with expansions in passages like Matthew 22:39 and :25-37 (the Good Samaritan ), which universalize the neighbor beyond kin or community to include all humanity as equals before . Kierkegaard employs this synthesis to argue that true neighbor requires seeing the other through 's eyes, mediated by Christ, thereby transcending natural sympathies and ensuring 's . Kierkegaard's exegesis of these texts is characteristically direct and subjective, prioritizing the 's role as an existential summons to inward transformation over detached academic inquiry. Rather than engaging in philological or contextual dissection, he applies scriptures like 1 Corinthians 13 and Matthew 22:37-39 immediately to the reader's , urging personal appropriation of love's demands as a lived that awakens and . The functions for him not as historical artifact but as a mirror revealing the soul's relation to , where verses provoke decision and action in the present moment. Deeply shaped by Lutheran theology, Kierkegaard frames works of love as the natural fruit of preceding grace, echoing Martin Luther's doctrine of justification by alone, wherein human efforts cannot merit but flow as obedient response to God's unmerited favor. In this view, arises not from autonomous will but as empowered by Christ's redemptive work, making love a marker of genuine rather than a means to earn divine approval; thus, neighbor love fulfills the law (Romans 13:8-10) through the Spirit's indwelling. This aligns with Lutheran emphasis on , positioning love as evidence of regeneration while guarding against works-righteousness. Kierkegaard critiques allegorical and historical-critical interpretive methods for distancing the from its personal, authoritative voice, arguing that such approaches—prevalent in 19th-century scholarship—reduce scripture to intellectual abstraction, thereby diluting its power to convict and transform the individual. Instead, he advocates a devotional engagement that hears the text's direct command, as in John 13:34, as God's immediate address to the heart, free from speculative overlays that obscure existential urgency. This rejection underscores his insistence on scripture's subjective truth, where over-analysis risks evading the call to embody love in concrete duty.

Philosophical Influences

Kierkegaard's conception of in Works of Love (1847) fundamentally opposes Hegelian philosophy by rejecting the systematic mediation of contradictions through dialectical reason, instead portraying Christian as a paradoxical reality accessible only through the 's existential . In Hegel's system, ethical life is reconciled within a rational totality where actions contribute to universal progress, but Kierkegaard insists that love's eternal validity defies such mediation, demanding a personal, non-rational commitment that suspends rational comprehension. This anti-Hegelian stance underscores as an absurd, infinite task for the single , isolated from speculative synthesis. Drawing on Immanuel Kant's moral philosophy, Kierkegaard echoes the in framing love as an unconditional duty commanded by , yet he infuses it with a dimension of religious passion absent in Kant's rational . Kant's treats love as practical benevolence subordinated to respect for the moral law, but Kierkegaard elevates it to the center of existence in Works of Love, where the divine command to love the neighbor (Matthew 22:39) becomes an infinite, humbling obligation that overcomes human despair through passionate . This adaptation transforms Kantian duty into a lived, relational imperative, equalizing all persons before and transcending mere legalistic adherence. Kierkegaard critiques , particularly Friedrich Schleiermacher's emphasis on immediate feeling as the basis of religious and relational experience, by insisting that true arises from the will rather than transient emotion. Schleiermacher's view in On Religion posits feeling (Gefühl) as the intuitive ground of and interpersonal bonds, but Kierkegaard argues in Works of Love that such emotion-based remains preferential and self-deceptive, lacking the deliberate, self-denying choice required for neighbor-. By prioritizing volitional duty over affective immediacy, Kierkegaard positions as an ethical and spiritual act that resists Romantic . Echoing Blaise Pascal's existential precursors, Kierkegaard incorporates the idea that "the heart has its reasons which reason knows nothing of" to depict as a subjective truth rooted in inward conviction rather than objective proof. In Works of Love, this Pascalian influence manifests in the portrayal of agapic as an intuitive, faith-driven recognition of divine value in every person, transcending rational calculation and enabling authentic relational depth. thus becomes a personal appropriation of eternal truth, where the heart's non-rational discernment aligns the individual with God's infinite generosity. Works of Love develops internally from Kierkegaard's earlier Fear and Trembling (1843), extending the concept of teleological suspension of the ethical—where faith paradoxically overrides universal norms—to the realm of love as a faith-sustained practice. In Fear and Trembling, Abraham's obedience exemplifies suspending ethical universality for a divine telos, a motif echoed in Works of Love through love's demand to transcend preferential attachments and embrace the neighbor unconditionally, even amid apparent absurdity. This progression frames love as the ethical expression of the knight of faith's infinite resignation and trust, binding individual existence to eternal validity.

Contemporary Reception

Upon its publication in 1847, Works of Love garnered limited attention in , overshadowed by the more controversial Concluding Unscientific Postscript from the previous year, which had provoked broader debate among intellectuals. Danish Hegelians, including Johan Ludvig Heiberg, dismissed Kierkegaard's approach as excessively subjective and lacking systematic rigor, a critique that extended to his religious writings like Works of Love despite the latter's more subdued tone. Kierkegaard explicitly addressed the book to "that single individual" in its , emphasizing a personal, introspective engagement over public acclaim or widespread dissemination, which aligned with its initial low sales and modest circulation within Danish literary circles. This focus on individualized reflection contributed to its muted contemporary impact, as Kierkegaard sought to awaken personal Christian commitment rather than foster immediate theological dialogue. In Scandinavian , the work found indirect positive echoes, subtly influencing N.F.S. Grundtvig's evolving ideas on folk-church vitality and communal Christian life, though Kierkegaard and Grundtvig maintained a tense intellectual relationship marked by mutual critique. During the and , Works of Love received minor mentions in nascent existential discussions, primarily among Danish and Norwegian thinkers exploring themes of amid broader shifts away from Hegelian . The English translation by David F. Swenson and Lillian M. Swenson followed in 1946, reflecting postwar recognition of the book's enduring relevance to and human relations.

Style and Rhetoric

Form of Christian Deliberations

Works of Love is structured as a series of edifying reflections, specifically termed "Some Christian Deliberations in the Form of Discourses," distinguishing it from systematic theological treatises or sermonic addresses by emphasizing personal spiritual growth over doctrinal exposition. This genre prioritizes existential engagement, inviting readers to internalize Christian love through contemplative practice rather than abstract argumentation. The Danish term overvejelser (deliberations) refers to meditative, non-argumentative expositions designed to provoke self-examination and action, functioning as a "gadfly" to awaken the reader's conscience toward the practice of love. Unlike persuasive discourses that reassure or inform, these deliberations encourage personal appropriation of agape, weighing the eternal implications of love against temporal inclinations without resolving into definitive conclusions. In Part One, the deliberations take the form of direct discourses addressed to the reader as "you," creating an intimate, confrontational encounter that mirrors the immediacy of divine command and fosters a of responsibility. This second-person address underscores the book's intent to pierce the reader's defenses, compelling a direct response to the call of neighborly . Unlike Kierkegaard's pseudonymous works, which employ ironic or indirect authorship to explore aesthetic and ethical ambiguities, Works of Love is published under Kierkegaard's own name, signaling a commitment to accountable, straightforward Christian witness. This signed authorship aligns with the book's ethical urgency, holding the author and reader alike responsible before for embodying 's demands. Each deliberation integrates prayerful elements and scriptural references, often opening with invocations that set a devotional tone and closing with biblical passages to ground reflections in divine authority, such as allusions to 1 Corinthians 13 or :8. These components transform the text into a liturgical exercise, blending and to elevate the reader's focus from human insight to God's word. The primary purpose of this form is opbygning (edification), aiming not to impart new but to transform the reader's by cultivating rooted in and . Through this approach, the seeks to build up the individual spiritually, urging a life of works that manifest eternal validity over fleeting preferences.

Dialectical and Repetitive Techniques

In Works of Love, employs a dialectical approach to explore the tensions inherent in Christian , particularly the of 's hidden essence versus its visible manifestations. is depicted as an inward, spiritual reality grounded in , which remains concealed from direct human comprehension yet becomes recognizable through its outward "works" or fruits, such as acts of and . This underscores the intersection of and , where 's divine origin clashes with finite human perception, requiring a "seeing and unseeing" that acknowledges the neighbor's particularity while affirming their eternal equality before . Similarly, Kierkegaard highlights the opposition between as duty—rooted in the divine commandment to the neighbor—and as inclination, which stems from preferential, self-interested emotions; the former demands resignation of the latter to achieve . These tensions culminate in paradoxes that Kierkegaard resolves not through rational synthesis but via a leap of faith, employing indirect communication to evoke existential appropriation. For instance, love simultaneously commands obedience yet grants freedom, binding the self in duty while liberating it from temporal fluctuations; it believes all things yet remains undeceived by appearances, mirroring the paradoxical faith of Abraham in his willingness to sacrifice yet receive back. This structure parallels the qualitative dialectic of existence, where opposites like hiddenness and visibility are held in sacred tension, fostering inward transformation rather than abstract resolution. Kierkegaard's repetitive techniques reinforce this by cyclically revisiting core themes, such as the hymn from 1 Corinthians 13 ("love believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things"), across the book's parts to deepen the reader's insight into 's eternal validity without mere redundancy. Repetition here functions as a forward-moving spiritual renewal, transforming static recollection into dynamic ethical commitment, where themes like neighborly recur to illuminate 's perpetual striving. This cyclical approach mirrors the repetitive nature of itself, continually presupposing 's presuppositions to build up the . To convey these ideas, Kierkegaard draws on rhetorical devices including hypotheticals, analogies, and irony directed against rationalistic proofs. Hypotheticals invite the reader to imagine scenarios of , while analogies like the —where love is known not by leaves (external signs) but by its fruits (deeds rooted in divine attitude)—illustrate love's hidden multiplicity within unity. Irony subtly critiques overly systematic , emphasizing that love's truths evade direct logical grasp and demand subjective engagement. Ultimately, these techniques engage the reader's inwardness, prompting personal appropriation of love's paradoxes through indirect means rather than didactic assertion.

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