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16th century woodcut of a soothsayer delivering a prophecy to a king, deriving it from stars, fishes, and noises from the mountains

In religion, mythology, and fiction, a prophecy is a message that has been communicated to a person (typically called a prophet) by a supernatural entity. Prophecies are a feature of many cultures and belief systems and usually contain divine will or law, or preternatural knowledge, for example of future events. They can be revealed to the prophet in various ways depending on the religion and the story, such as visions, or direct interaction with divine beings in physical form. Stories of prophetic deeds sometimes receive considerable attention and some have been known to survive for centuries through oral tradition or as religious texts.

Etymology

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The English noun "prophecy", in the sense of "function of a prophet" appeared from about 1225, from Old French profecie (12th century), and from prophetia, Greek propheteia "gift of interpreting the will of God", from Greek prophetes (see prophet). The related meaning, "thing spoken or written by a prophet", dates from c. 1300, while the verb "to prophesy" is recorded by 1377.[1]

Definitions

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The revolution of 1831. As prophesied by that learned astrologer General Ikey Wether-Bridge
  • Maimonides suggested that "prophecy is, in truth and reality, an emanation sent forth by Divine Being through the medium of the Active Intellect, in the first instance to man's rational faculty, and then to his imaginative faculty".[2]
  • The views of Maimonides closely relate to the definition by Al-Fârâbî, who developed the theory of prophecy in Islam.[3]
  • Much of the activity of Old Testament prophets involved conditional warnings rather than immutable futures.[4] A summary of a standard Old Testament prophetic formula might run: Repent of sin X and turn to righteousness, otherwise consequence Y will occur.
  • Saint Paul emphasizes edification, exhortation and comfort in a definition of prophesying.[5]
  • The Catholic Encyclopedia defines a Christian conception of prophecy as "understood in its strict sense, it means the foreknowledge of future events, though it may sometimes apply to past events of which there is no memory, and to present hidden things which cannot be known by the natural light of reason".[6]
  • According to Western esotericist Rosemary Guiley, clairvoyance has been used as an adjunct to "divination, prophecy, and magic".[7]
  • From a skeptical point of view, a Latin maxim exists: "prophecy written after the fact" (vaticinium ex eventu).[8] The Jewish Torah already deals with the topic of the false prophet (Deuteronomy 13:2-6, 18:20-22).[9]

In religion

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Baháʼí Faith

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Main article: Baháʼí prophecies

In 1863, Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, claimed to have been the promised messianic figure of all previous religions, and a Manifestation of God,[10] a type of prophet in the Baháʼí writings that serves as intermediary between the divine and humanity and who speaks with the voice of a God.[11] Bahá'u'lláh claimed that, while being imprisoned in the Siyah-Chal in Iran, he underwent a series of mystical experiences including having a vision of the Maid of Heaven who told him of his divine mission, and the promise of divine assistance;[12] In Baháʼí belief, the Maid of Heaven is a representation of the divine.[13]

Buddhism

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The Haedong Kosung-jon (Biographies of High Monks) records that King Beopheung of Silla desired to promulgate Buddhism as the state religion. However, officials in his court opposed him. In the fourteenth year of his reign, Beopheung's "Grand Secretary", Ichadon, devised a strategy to overcome court opposition. Ichadon schemed with the king, convincing him to make a proclamation granting Buddhism official state sanction using the royal seal. Ichadon told the king to deny having made such a proclamation when the opposing officials received it and demanded an explanation. Instead, Ichadon would confess and accept the punishment of execution, for what would quickly be seen as a forgery. Ichadon prophesied to the king that at his execution a wonderful miracle would convince the opposing court faction of Buddhism's power.

Ichadon's scheme went as planned, and the opposing officials took the bait. When Ichadon was executed on the 15th day of the 9th month in 527, his prophecy was fulfilled; the earth shook, the sun was darkened, beautiful flowers rained from the sky, his severed head flew to the sacred Geumgang Mountains, and milk instead of blood sprayed 100 feet in the air from his beheaded corpse. The omen was accepted by the opposing court officials as a manifestation of heaven's approval, and Buddhism was made the state religion in 527.[14]

Christianity

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See also: Bible prophecy, Prophets of Christianity, Predictions and claims for the Second Coming of Christ, and Unfulfilled Christian religious predictions

According to Walter Brueggemann, the task of prophetic (Christian) ministry is to nurture, nourish and evoke a consciousness and perception alternative to the consciousness and perception of the dominant culture.[15] A recognized form of Christian prophecy is the "prophetic drama" which Frederick Dillistone describes as a "metaphorical conjunction between present situations and future events".[16]

Later Christianity

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In his Dialogue with Trypho, Justin Martyr argued that prophets were no longer among Israel but were in the Church.[17] The Shepherd of Hermas, written around the mid-2nd century, describes the way prophecy was being used within the church of that time. Irenaeus confirms the existence of such spiritual gifts in his Against Heresies. Although some modern commentators claim that Montanus was rejected because he claimed to be a prophet, a careful examination of history shows that the gift of prophecy was still acknowledged during the time of Montanus, and that he was controversial because of the manner in which he prophesied and the doctrines he propagated.[18]

Prophecy and other spiritual gifts were somewhat rarely acknowledged throughout church history and there are few examples of the prophetic and certain other gifts until the Scottish Covenanters like Prophet Peden and George Wishart.[citation needed] From 1904 to 1906, the Azusa Street Revival occurred in Los Angeles, California and is sometimes considered the birthplace of Pentecostalism. This revival is well known for the "speaking in tongues" that occurred there. Some participants of the Azusa Street Revival are claimed to have prophesied. Pentecostals believe prophecy and certain other gifts are once again being given to Christians. The Charismatic Movement also accepts spiritual gifts like speaking in tongues and prophecy.

The Seventh-day Adventist Church is a denomination that traces its history to the Millerite Movement and the Great Disappointment. Seventh-day Adventists "accept the biblical teaching of spiritual gifts and believe that the gift of prophecy is one of the identifying marks of the remnant church." The church also believes Ellen G. White to be a prophet and that her writings are divinely inspired.

Since 1972, the neo-Pentecostal Church of God Ministry of Jesus Christ International has expressed a belief in prophecy. The church claims this gift is manifested by one person (the prophesier) laying their hands on another person, who receives an individual message said by the prophesier. Prophesiers are believed to be used by the Holy Ghost as instruments through whom their God expresses his promises, advice and commandments. The church claims people receive messages about their future, in the form of promises given by their God and expected to be fulfilled by divine action.[19]

Apostolic-Prophetic Movement

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See also: New Apostolic Reformation

In the Apostolic-Prophetic Movement, a prophesy is simply a word delivered under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit that accurately communicates God's "thoughts and intention".[20]

The Apostolic Council of Prophetic Elders was a council of prophetic elders co-convened by C. Peter Wagner and Cindy Jacobs that included: Beth Alves, Jim Gool, Chuck Pierce, Mike and Cindy Jacobs, Bart Pierces, John and Paula Sanford, Dutch Sheets, Tommy Tenny, Heckor Torres, Barbara Wentroble, Mike Bickle, Paul Cain, Emanuele Cannistraci, Bill Hamon, Kingsley Fletcher, Ernest Gentile, Jim Laffoon, James Ryle, and Gwen Shaw.[21]

Latter Day Saint movement

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See also: Joseph Smith and Revelation (Latter Day Saints)

The Latter Day Saint movement maintains that its first prophet, Joseph Smith, was visited by God and Jesus Christ in 1820. The Latter Day Saints further claims that God communicated directly with Joseph Smith on many subsequent occasions, and that following the death of Joseph Smith God has continued to speak through subsequent prophets. Joseph Smith claims to have been led by an angel to a large hill in upstate New York, where he was shown an ancient manuscript engraved on plates of gold metal. Joseph Smith claimed to have translated this manuscript into modern English under divine inspiration by the gift and power of God, and the publication of this translation are known as the Book of Mormon.

Following Smith's murder, there was a succession crisis that resulted in a great schism. The majority of Latter-day Saints believing Brigham Young to be the next prophet and following him out to Utah, while a minority returned to Missouri with Emma Smith, believing Joseph Smith Junior's son, Joseph Smith III, to be the next legitimate prophet (forming the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, now the Community of Christ). Since even before the death of Joseph Smith in 1844, there have been numerous separatist Latter Day Saint sects that have splintered from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. To this day, there are an unknown number of organizations within the Latter Day Saint movement, each with their own proposed prophet.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is the largest Latter Day Saint body. The current Prophet/President of the LDS Church is Russell M. Nelson. The church has, since Joseph Smith's death on June 27, 1844, held a belief that the president of their church is also a literal prophet of God. The church also maintains that further revelations claimed to have been given through Joseph Smith are published in the Doctrine and Covenants, one of the Standard Works. Additional revelations and prophecies outside the Standard Works, such as Joseph Smith's "White Horse Prophecy", concerning a great and final war in the United States before the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, can be found in other church published works.

Islam

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See also: Prophets in Islam

The Arabic term for prophecy nubū'ah (Arabic: نُبُوْءَة) stems from the term for prophets, nabī (Arabic: نَبِي; pl. anbiyāʼ from nabā "tidings, announcement") who are lawbringers that Muslims believe were sent by God to every person, bringing God's message in a language they can understand.[22][23] But there is also the term rasūl (Arabic: رسول "messenger, apostle") to classify those who bring a divine revelation (Arabic: رسالة risālah "message") via an angel.[22][24] Knowledge of the Islamic prophets is one of the six articles of the Islamic faith,[25] and specifically mentioned in the Quran.[26] Along with Muhammad, many of the prophets in Judaism (such as Noah, Abraham, Moses, Aaron, Elijah, etc.) and prophets of Christianity (Adam, Zechariah the priest, John the Baptist, Jesus Christ) are mentioned by name in the Quran.[22]

In the sense of predicting events, the Quran contains verses believed to have predicted many events years before they happened and that such prophecies are proof of the divine origin of the Qur'an. The Qur'an itself states "Every ˹destined˺ matter has a ˹set˺ time to transpire. And you will soon come to know." [Quran 6:67] Muslims also recognize the validity of some prophecies in other sacred texts like in the Bible; however, they believe that, unlike the Qur'an, some parts of the Bible have been corrupted over the years, and as a result, not all of the prophecies and verses in the Bible are accurate.[27]

Judaism

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See also: Prophets in Judaism and Nevi'im
David and Saul, detail from an 1878 oil painting, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

The Hebrew term for prophet, Navi (נביא), literally means "spokesperson"; a prophet speaks to the people as a mouthpiece of their God, and to their god on behalf of the people. "The name prophet, from the Greek meaning "forespeaker" (πρὸ being used in the original local sense), is an equivalent of the Hebrew Navi, which signifies properly a delegate or mouthpiece of another."[28]

Sigmund Mowinckel's account of prophecy in ancient Israel distinguishes seers and prophets - both in their origins and in their functions:

According to Mowinckel, the early seer and the ecstatic prophet derived from two distinctly different social and institutional backgrounds. The seer belonged to the earliest stratum of Israelite society and was related to the priest who 'was not originally in the first instance a sacrificer, but as with the old Arabs, custodian of the sanctuary, oracle priest, "seer" and holder of the effective future-creating and future-interpreting word of power, the blessing and the curse.' [...] Ecstatic prophecy - nebiism - and temple priests were indigenous to Canaanite culture and represented elements adopted by the Israelites. With the fusion of the functions of the seer-priest with the functions of the temple-sacrificial priests and ecstatic prophets, two main groups developed: the priests occupied with cult and sacrifice [...] and the 'prophets' who 'continued the more "pneumatic" aspect of the character and work of the old "seers"' and 'were mediums of the divinely inspired "word" which was "whispered to" them, or "came to them"' [...] The prophets retained, in guild fashion, the old seer relationship to the cult [...]. [29]

According to Judaism, authentic Nevuah (נבואה, "Prophecy") got withdrawn from the world after the destruction of the first Jerusalem Temple.[30] Malachi is acknowledged to have been the last authentic prophet if one accepts the opinion that Nechemyah died in Babylon before 9th Tevet 3448 (313 BCE).[31]

The Torah contains laws concerning the false prophet (Deuteronomy 13:2-6, 18:20-22). Prophets in Islam, like Lot, for example, are false prophets according to Jewish standards.

In the Torah, prophecy often consisted of a conditioned warning by their God of the consequences should the society, specific communities, or their leaders not adhere to the Torah's instructions in the time contemporary with the prophet's life. Prophecies sometimes included conditioned promises of blessing for obeying their god, and returning to behaviors and laws as written in the Torah. Conditioned-warning prophecies feature in all Jewish works of the Tanakh.

Notably Maimonides (1138–1204), philosophically suggested that there once were many levels of prophecy, from the highest (such as those experienced by Moses) to the lowest (where the individuals were able to apprehend the Divine Will, but not respond or even describe this experience to others, citing for example, Shem, Eber and most notably, Noah, who, in the biblical narrative, does not issue prophetic declarations).[32]

Maimonides, in his philosophical work The Guide for the Perplexed, outlines twelve modes of prophecy[33] from lesser to greater degree of clarity:

  1. Inspired actions
  2. Inspired words
  3. Allegorical dream revelations
  4. Auditory dream revelations
  5. Audiovisual dream revelations/human speaker
  6. Audiovisual dream revelations/angelic speaker
  7. Audiovisual dream revelations/Divine speaker
  8. Allegorical waking vision
  9. Auditory waking revelation
  10. Audiovisual waking revelation/human speaker
  11. Audiovisual waking revelation/angelic speaker
  12. Audiovisual waking revelation/Divine speaker (that refers implicitly to Moses)

The Tanakh contains prophecies from various Hebrew prophets (55 in total) who communicated messages from God to the nation of Israel, and later to the population of Judea and elsewhere. Experience of prophecy in the Torah and the rest of Tanakh was not restricted to Jews. Nor was the prophetic experience restricted to the Hebrew language.

Native American prophecy

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There exists a problem in verifying most Native American prophecy, in that they remain primarily an oral tradition, and thus there is no way to cite references of where writings have been committed to paper. In their system, the best reference is an Elder, who acts as a repository of the accumulated wisdom of their tradition.

In another type of example, it is recorded that there are three Dogrib prophets who had claimed to have been divinely inspired to bring the message of Christianity's God to their people.[34] This prophecy among the Dogrib involves elements such as dances and trance-like states.[35]

China

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In ancient Chinese, prophetic texts are known as Chen (谶). The most famous Chinese prophecies are the I Ching (易經) and the Tui bei tu (推背圖).

Nostradamus

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Esoteric prophecy has been claimed for, but not by, Michel de Nostredame (1503–1566), popularly referred to as Nostradamus, who claimed to be a converted Christian. It is known that he suffered several tragedies in his life, and was persecuted to some degree for his cryptic esoteric writings about the future, reportedly derived through a use of a crystal ball. Nostradamus was a French apothecary and reputed seer who published collections of foreknowledge of future events. He is best known for his book Les Propheties ("The Prophecies"), the first edition of which appeared in 1555. Since Les Propheties was published, Nostradamus has attracted an esoteric following that, along with the popularistic press, credits him with foreseeing world events. His esoteric cryptic foreseeings have in some cases been assimilated to the results of applying the alleged Bible code, as well as to other purported pseudo-prophetic works.

Most reliable academic sources maintain that the associations made between world events and Nostradamus's quatrains are largely the result of misinterpretations or mistranslations (sometimes deliberate) or else are so tenuous as to render them useless as evidence of any genuine predictive power. Moreover, none of the sources listed offers any evidence that anyone has ever interpreted any of Nostradamus's pseudo-prophetic works specifically enough to allow a clear identification of any event in advance.[36]

Explanations

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According to skeptics, many apparently fulfilled prophecies can be explained as coincidences, possibly aided by the prophecy's own vagueness, and others may have been invented after the fact to match the circumstances of a past event (an act termed "postdiction").[37][38][39]

Bill Whitcomb in The Magician's Companion observes,

One point to remember is that the probability of an event changes as soon as a prophecy (or divination) exists. . . . The accuracy or outcome of any prophecy is altered by the desires and attachments of the seer and those who hear the prophecy.[40]

Many prophets make a large number of prophecies. This makes the chances of at least one prophecy being correct much higher by sheer weight of numbers.[41]

Psychology

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The phenomenon of prophecy is not well understood in psychology research literature. Psychiatrist and neurologist Arthur Deikman describes the phenomenon as an "intuitive knowing, a type of perception that bypasses the usual sensory channels and rational intellect."[42]

"(P)rophecy can be likened to a bridge between the individual 'mystical self' and the communal 'mystical body'," writes religious sociologist Margaret Poloma.[43] Prophecy seems to involve "the free association that occurred through the workings of the right brain."[44]

Psychologist Julian Jaynes proposed that this is a temporary accessing of the bicameral mind; that is, a temporary separating of functions, such that the authoritarian part of the mind seems to literally be speaking to the person as if a separate (and external) voice. Jaynes posits that the gods heard as voices in the head were and are organizations of the central nervous system. God speaking through man, according to Jaynes, is a more recent vestige of God speaking to man; the product of a more integrated higher self. When the bicameral mind speaks, there is no introspection. In earlier times, posits Jaynes, there was additionally a visual component, now lost.[45]

Child development and consciousness author Joseph Chilton Pearce remarked that revelation typically appears in symbolic form and "in a single flash of insight."[46] He used the metaphor of lightning striking and suggests that the revelation is "a result of a buildup of resonant potential."[47] Pearce compared it to the earth asking a question and the sky answering it. Focus, he said, feeds into "a unified field of like resonance (and becomes) capable of attracting and receiving the field's answer when it does form."[48]

Some cite aspects of cognitive psychology such as pattern forming and attention to the formation of prophecy in modern-day society as well as the declining influence of religion in daily life.[49]

Poetry and prophecy

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For the ancient Greeks, prediction, prophesy, and poetry were often intertwined.[50] Prophecies were given in verse, and a word for poet in Latin is “vates” or prophet.[50] Both poets and oracles claimed to be inspired by forces outside themselves. In ancient China, divination is regarded as the oldest form of occult inquiry and was often expressed in verse.[51] In contemporary Western cultures, theological revelation and poetry are typically seen as distinct and often even as opposed to each other. Yet the two still are often understood together as symbiotic in their origins, aims, and purposes.[52]

Middle English poems of a political nature are linked with Latin and vernacular prophecies. Prophecies in this sense are predictions concerning kingdoms or peoples; and these predictions are often eschatological or apocalyptic.[53] The prophetic tradition in English derives in from Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain (1136), otherwise called "Prophecies of Merlin;" this work is prelude to numerous books devoted to King Arthur. In 18th century England, prophecy as poetry is revived by William Blake[54] who wrote: America: A Prophecy (1783) and Europe: A Prophecy (1794).[53]

Contemporary American poetry is also rich in lyrics about prophesy, including poems entitled Prophecy by Dana Gioia[55] and Eileen Myles. In 1962, Robert Frost published "The Prophets Really Prophesy as Mystics the Commentators Merely by Statistics".[56] Other modern poets who write on prophets or prophecy include Carl Dennis, Richard Wilbur,[57] and Derek Walcott.[58]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Prophecy

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Prophecy is the divinely inspired communication of messages from a source to humanity, typically through an intermediary known as , encompassing s about the divine will, moral exhortations, warnings, and often predictions of future events. This phenomenon distinguishes itself from other forms of by relying on spontaneous, direct rather than the interpretation of omens or natural signs. Prophets serve primarily as mediators between the divine and human realms, conveying guidance or judgment to address contemporary social, ethical, and political issues. The roots of prophecy trace back to the , where it emerged as a key mode of attaining divine knowledge across Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Hittite cultures, predating and influencing later traditions. In these contexts, prophets—often ecstatic or visionary figures—delivered unsolicited messages to kings, priests, or communities, emphasizing the enforcement of divine order over mere . Scholarly analysis highlights that ancient focused on and ethical correction rather than the modern emphasis on predictive accuracy, with texts like the Mari letters from the 18th century BCE providing early evidence of prophetic activity. In the —, — forms a foundational element of theological and eschatological frameworks, sharing a tradition of and divine through human messengers. views prophets like and as conveyors of God's covenant, emphasizing justice, repentance, and national restoration without anticipating a return of after the biblical era. In , prophecies are interpreted as foretelling as the , with writings, such as those of Paul, portraying as a for edifying the church through ongoing divine speech acts. regards as the final prophet, sealing the prophetic line after earlier figures like (Isa) and , with the finality of established upon his death in 632 CE, prohibiting subsequent claims to divine . Beyond Abrahamic traditions, prophecy manifests in various non-Western religions, such as oracular practices in and Roman contexts or roles in indigenous spiritualities, though scholarly focus often centers on its Abrahamic expressions due to their extensive textual records and global influence. Throughout history, prophetic movements have inspired social reform, apocalyptic expectations, and critiques of power, underscoring prophecy's enduring role in shaping religious and cultural narratives.

Etymology and Definitions

Etymology

The English term "" entered the language in the late 13th century, borrowed from prophécie (attested around 1200 CE), which derived from prophetia. This Latin form was directly adopted from prophēteía, a noun denoting the "gift of interpreting the divine will" or the practice of foretelling future events through inspired speech. The Greek root combines the prefix pro- (meaning "before" or "forth") with phēmi (from the "to speak" or "declare"), yielding a literal sense of "speaking forth" or "proclaiming in advance." In classical Greek, dating from at least the BCE, prophēteía and its related noun prophētēs () primarily referred to the role of a public interpreter of divine messages, such as the prophētēs at oracular sites like , who articulated ambiguous godly responses to inquirers. This usage emphasized exposition or declaration rather than exclusive prediction, often linked to terms like manteia () for the broader art of receiving oracles. The Greek concept contrasted with but influenced related Semitic ideas; for instance, the Hebrew nābîʾ (navi, meaning "called one" or "spokesperson"), rooted in the Northwest Semitic nābāʾ ("to call" or "proclaim"), was a or equivalent rendered as prophētēs in the Septuagint translation of the (3rd–2nd centuries BCE). The Hebrew term likely borrowed from Akkadian nabû ("to name" or "announce"), a from the nby ("to call"), with the earliest Hebrew attestations of nābîʾ appearing in classical prophetic texts from the BCE, such as those of and . As the term spread through and , its meaning evolved from the Greek focus on interpretive public speaking to a stronger emphasis on and eschatological foretelling, reflecting the portrayal of prophets as exclusive conduits of God's revelations. This semantic shift is traceable from the 8th century BCE in Semitic contexts—where nābîʾ and cognates like nabiyy denoted summoned messengers—through the CE in Greek, where prophēteía underscored predictive and revelatory functions. Related terms, such as the Greek chrēsmós ( utterance) or Latin oraculum (from orāre, "to speak" or "pray," entering English around 1375 CE), highlight parallel notions of divine communication but without the prophetic connotation of personal divine commissioning.

Definitions and Types

Prophecy is fundamentally understood in as a form of divine communication, wherein a prophet receives and conveys a from a , often involving about future events, moral guidance, or interpretations of the divine will. This contrasts with secular uses of the term, such as in or , where "prophecy" metaphorically denotes based on empirical data rather than supernatural inspiration. Scholars emphasize that the core purpose of prophecy is not solely prediction but mediating between the divine and human realms to address contemporary ethical or social concerns. Several distinct types of prophecy are identified in theological and historical analyses, categorized by their content and function. Predictive prophecy involves foretelling specific future occurrences as part of a divine plan, serving to affirm faith or warn of consequences. Apocalyptic prophecy, a subset often featuring visionary imagery, discloses cosmic upheavals, end-times scenarios, and ultimate , aiming to encourage perseverance amid . Exhortative prophecy focuses on moral admonitions and calls to , urging communities to align with ethical standards rather than detailing future timelines. Interpretive prophecy explains present circumstances as fulfillments of earlier revelations, providing theological context to ongoing events without necessarily projecting ahead. Prophecy is sharply distinguished from related practices like and in scholarly frameworks. Divination encompasses human-initiated techniques, such as rituals or consultations with oracles, to elicit hidden knowledge from sources, whereas prophecy is portrayed as unsolicited and authoritative divine disclosure. , specifically, relies on interpreting natural signs—like animal behaviors or celestial phenomena—for omens, lacking the personal prophetic intermediary and direct revelatory content central to prophecy. These boundaries highlight prophecy's emphasis on ethical proclamation over manipulative inquiry, as noted in comparative studies of ancient traditions.

Prophecy in Ancient and Classical Traditions

Ancient Near East

In the , prophecy emerged as a form of divine communication where individuals acted as intermediaries between deities and human authorities, particularly kings, delivering messages through various means such as dreams, visions, or ecstatic states. In Mesopotamian cultures, prophets were known by terms like āpilum (male) or āpiltum (female) in Akkadian texts, referring to those who "answer" or respond to the gods on behalf of the community or ruler. These figures often entered trance-like states induced by music or rituals to receive oracles, emphasizing their role in advising on , political, or cultic matters. Prophetic practices are also attested in the Hittite kingdom of during the second millennium BCE (c. 1650–1180 BCE), where divine messages were delivered to the king through s or visionary figures, often in ritual contexts such as plague prayers or oracles addressing crises, linking prophecy to royal and cultic decision-making. A for understanding early prophecy is the archive of letters from Mari, an Amorite in modern-day , dating to the 18th century BCE during the reign of King . These tablets, numbering around 60 prophetic texts, record messages from deities like Annunitum or Itar delivered by s to the king, often warning of threats, promising victory, or instructing on temple rituals. For instance, one letter describes a female in ecstasy proclaiming divine support for against enemies, highlighting prophecy's integration into royal decision-making. Similar practices appear in later Neo-Assyrian texts from the BCE, where s like those in the court of provided oracles of assurance or judgment. In , prophecy was more closely tied to priestly institutions rather than independent ecstatic figures, with the title "" (ḥm-nṯr, meaning "servant of the ") denoting high-ranking who interpreted divine will through oracles, dreams, and consultations. The " of Amun," especially the First Prophet at Thebes during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), oversaw the 's cult and mediated revelations, such as in the Demotic Chronicle where prophetic dreams foretold dynastic changes. Egyptian prophetic literature, like the Prophecy of Neferti (Middle Kingdom, c. 1991–1802 BCE), used visionary narratives to legitimize rulers amid chaos, focusing on restoration rather than direct divine rebuke. These Near Eastern prophetic traditions influenced early Hebrew prophecy through shared motifs, such as depictions of divine councils where gods deliberate fates (evident in from the 14th–12th centuries BCE and Mesopotamian assemblies) and oracles of judgment or delivered to kings. Up to the 6th century BCE, Israelite prophets adopted similar formats, including calls to and warnings of divine intervention, as seen in the adaptation of royal oracle patterns from Mari and Assyrian sources into texts like those of or . This cultural exchange underscores prophecy's role as a cross-regional phenomenon in Semitic societies.

Classical Greece and Rome

In , prophecy was prominently institutionalized through the Delphic Oracle, dedicated to the god Apollo and operational from approximately the 8th century BCE until the 4th century CE. The oracle's responses were delivered by the , a priestess selected from local women over fifty years old, who entered a trance-like state in the temple's and uttered prophecies that were often cryptic and ambiguous, requiring interpretation by temple priests. These pronouncements influenced major decisions, such as colonial foundations and military campaigns, as seen in historical accounts where leaders like of consulted the oracle before pivotal actions. Prophetic figures also appeared in Greek poetry, embodying inspired divination outside formal institutions. In Homer's Iliad, the seer Calchas serves as the Achaean army's chief prophet, interpreting omens from Apollo to reveal the cause of a plague afflicting the Greeks at Troy and advising on ritual expiation. Similarly, the Sibyls—legendary female prophets—were revered for their ecstatic utterances; the Cumaean Sibyl, for instance, was a wandering seer whose oracles guided heroes and were later immortalized in Virgil's Aeneid, where she leads Aeneas through the underworld and foretells Rome's destiny. Rome adapted Greek prophetic traditions while incorporating Etruscan practices, blending oracular consultation with methods like haruspicy, the examination of animal entrails for divine signs, which originated in Etruscan religious lore and became integral to Roman state rituals. The , collections of prophetic verses attributed to Sibyls and acquired by in the 6th century BCE, were consulted by the during crises to prescribe expiatory rites, reflecting Etruscan influences on Roman augury and . These pagan prophetic systems declined sharply in the 4th century CE amid , with Theodosius I's edicts suppressing temple activities, culminating in the reported closure of the Delphic around 393 CE.

Prophecy in Abrahamic Religions

Judaism

In ancient Judaism, prophecy served as a central through which communicated directly with the people of , primarily via chosen individuals known as navi (prophets) who acted as divine messengers. These prophets, beginning with as the archetypal figure around 1200 BCE, conveyed God's will, often urging repentance and adherence to the covenant established at Sinai. is depicted not merely as a prototype but as the comprehensive model of prophecy, receiving direct revelation on and interceding for the nation during crises like the incident. Subsequent prophets, active from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE, included major figures such as and , who addressed the kingdoms of and Judah amid threats of Assyrian and Babylonian conquest, and the like , Amos, and , who focused on social injustices and . These individuals were selected based on their wisdom, moral integrity, and mastery over personal inclinations, ensuring their messages aligned with divine ethics rather than personal agendas. A hallmark of Jewish prophecy was the direct attribution of speech to God, frequently introduced by the formula "Thus says the " (koh amar YHWH), which underscored the prophets' role as unadulterated conduits of divine instruction. Unlike diviners in surrounding ancient Near Eastern cultures, Jewish prophets emphasized , condemning corruption, oppression of the vulnerable, and covenant violations while promising restoration for the faithful. For instance, Isaiah's visions highlighted themes of and , portraying a future where swords are beaten into plowshares, while warned of exile due to infidelity to the covenant but also foretold its renewal through a transformed heart and internalized within the people ( 31:31–34). This ethical focus reinforced the covenant's demands for righteousness () and mercy (), positioning prophets as enforcers of Israel's unique relationship with rather than mere foretellers of events. Prophecy's prominence waned in the post-exilic period following the return from Babylonian captivity, culminating in the era of the last canonical prophets—Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi—around 520–420 BCE. Rabbinic tradition, as recorded in the Talmud (Sanhedrin 11a), holds that with their deaths, the full spirit of prophecy (ruach ha-nevu'ah) ceased in Israel, marking the end of direct divine revelation and the shift toward interpretive study of Torah by sages. This cessation is attributed to factors like the people's diminished spiritual merit and the completion of the prophetic corpus, though a lesser form known as bat kol (heavenly echo or voice) persisted as a guiding sign during the Second Temple era, occasionally attributed to figures like the elders of the Great Assembly or Hillel the Elder. Despite this decline, the prophetic legacy endured as a model for ethical leadership and covenant fidelity in Jewish thought.

Christianity

In Christianity, prophecy builds upon the Jewish tradition of divine revelation through prophets who foretold the , but the reinterprets it as fulfilled in Jesus Christ while establishing a new charismatic dimension empowered by the for the church's edification. This shift emphasizes prophecy not as foretelling future events exclusively, but primarily as Spirit-inspired speech that strengthens believers, convicts unbelievers, and promotes communal growth. The portrays prophecy as one of the key spiritual gifts distributed by the to equip the church. In 1 Corinthians 12–14, the Apostle Paul lists prophecy among the charismata, describing it as an utterance that edifies more effectively than uninterpreted tongues, and urges believers to "earnestly desire" it for the (1 Cor 14:1, 3–5). Paul structures its practice with guidelines for orderly use in worship, ensuring it serves exhortation, encouragement, and consolation rather than chaos (1 Cor 14:29–33). A concrete example appears in Acts, where the Agabus, inspired by the Spirit, predicts a severe across the (Acts 11:28) and later foretells Paul’s imprisonment in through symbolic action (Acts 21:10–11). These instances illustrate prophecy as a revelatory accessible to ordinary believers post-Pentecost, democratizing what was once reserved for select figures in the . In the patristic era, prophecy persisted amid growing institutionalization of the church, manifesting in movements like , which emerged in the second century CE in as a charismatic renewal emphasizing ecstatic utterances and the urgency of Christ's return. Led by and prophetesses Prisca and Maximilla, this "New Prophecy" sought to revive apostolic fervor through direct revelations, but it faced condemnation for its excesses and claims of superior authority, marking an early tension between spontaneous prophecy and ecclesiastical order. By the medieval period, scholastic theology systematized prophecy as a . Thomas , in his Summa Theologiae, classified it as a gratia gratis data—a gratuitous charism illuminating the prophet's intellect to grasp eternal truths or future contingencies beyond natural reason, always subordinate to faith and Scripture (ST II-II, q. 172). Aquinas distinguished true prophecy from false by its alignment with , viewing it as a tool for moral and doctrinal instruction rather than sensational prediction. The Reformation intensified debates over prophecy's role, with Martin Luther sharply opposing the "enthusiasts"—radical reformers like Andreas Karlstadt and Thomas Müntzer who prioritized inner spiritual illuminations and prophetic claims over biblical authority. In works such as Against the Heavenly Prophets (1525), Luther accused them of fanaticism, arguing that post-apostolic prophecy risked error without the safeguard of sola scriptura, and that the Spirit speaks reliably only through the written Word. This cessationist stance contrasted with the enthusiasts' continuationist emphasis on ongoing revelations for church reform, influencing later Protestant divisions on charismatic gifts. The twentieth century witnessed a resurgence of prophetic emphasis through , which from its origins in the 1906 onward has affirmed the continuation of New Testament-style as essential to Spirit-baptized life. Pentecostals view as an active gift for personal guidance, corporate edification, and mission, often delivered spontaneously in worship settings to exhort, comfort, or reveal God's will (1 Cor 14:3). This movement, now encompassing over 600 million adherents globally, integrates with other charismata like tongues and , rejecting cessationism in favor of an empowered, experiential faith that echoes early Christian dynamism.

Islam

In Islam, prophecy forms a continuous chain of divine guidance from Adam, the first human and prophet, to Muhammad, encompassing anbiya (prophets) who received revelation to guide humanity. The Quran explicitly names 25 such prophets, including figures like Noah (Nuh), Abraham (Ibrahim), Moses (Musa), and Jesus (Isa), many of whom are shared with Jewish and Christian traditions. This lineage underscores the unity of monotheistic revelation, with each prophet affirming the message of tawhid (the oneness of God) and calling people to moral and spiritual uprightness. Central to Islamic theology is the distinction between nubuwwa (prophethood), which involves receiving to reinforce or remind of prior messages, and risala (messengership), where a rasul (messenger) is entrusted with a new scripture or law () to establish a fresh legislative framework. All messengers are prophets, but not all prophets are messengers; exemplifies the latter as the final messenger, bearing the , which regard as the verbatim, unaltered word of God revealed over 23 years in 7th-century Arabia. The declares the "Seal of the Prophets" (), signifying the completion and perfection of , after which no new prophets or scriptures will come. Following Muhammad's death in 632 CE, Islamic doctrine affirms the finality of prophethood, prohibiting any claims to new divine or messengership. However, the concept of mujaddids (renewers) emerges from a tradition stating that God sends a renewer at the head of each century to revive the faith's true spirit without introducing new prophecy.

Prophecy in Other Religious Traditions

In the , prophecy is understood through the doctrine of progressive , wherein God sends successive Manifestations—divine educators who reflect God's attributes and guide humanity's spiritual and social development in accordance with the needs of each era. These Manifestations include figures such as Abraham, , , and , each bringing renewed spiritual impulses akin to the arrival of spring, fostering moral refinement and societal advancement. (1817–1892), the founder of the Faith, is regarded as the most recent Manifestation, fulfilling prophecies from prior s and establishing a framework for global unity. Bahá’u’lláh's extensive writings, composed primarily between the 1860s and 1890s during periods of exile and imprisonment in the , constitute the latest and emphasize the essential oneness of all as part of a single, unfolding plan from . In works such as the (revealed around 1873) and Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh (compiled from letters spanning 1850s–1890s), he prophesies the emergence of a unified world order, including the abolition of extremes of wealth and poverty, the establishment of universal , and the harmonious integration of and to address humanity's contemporary challenges. These prophecies underscore the Baháʼí vision of prophecy not as isolated predictions but as transformative teachings aimed at collective progress toward a just and peaceful global civilization. While affirming the finality of Muhammad's prophethood within , the hold that future Manifestations may appear after the lapse of at least one thousand years from Bahá’u’lláh's dispensation, ensuring the of each while maintaining the continuity of divine guidance. Bahá’u’lláh explicitly states in his writings: "Second, that ere the expiration of one thousand years whosoever advanceth a prophetic claim is false," thereby distinguishing the Baháʼí perspective on ongoing from doctrines of absolute finality. This temporal safeguard allows for the full implementation of current teachings before any subsequent divine educator emerges.

Buddhism

In Buddhist traditions, prophetic elements primarily involve predictions derived from enlightened insight into karma and the cyclical nature of samsara, rather than direct divine intervention. A key example is the prophecy of Maitreya, the future Buddha destined to rediscover and teach the Dharma after its decline. This foretelling appears in the Pali Canon, particularly the Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta (Dīgha Nikāya 26), with roots in oral traditions dating to around the 5th century BCE. The sutta outlines a future era of profound degeneration, where moral decay leads to societal collapse, shortened lifespans to just ten years, and rampant violence, symbolizing the "degenerate age" following Shakyamuni Buddha's teachings. Renewal then occurs through virtuous actions, gradually restoring longevity to 80,000 years and ethical harmony, at which point Maitreya attains enlightenment beneath a nāga tree and expounds the Dharma to an immense assembly, renewing Buddhism for a new cosmic cycle. Later tantric texts build on these themes with more elaborate eschatological visions. The Kālacakra Tantra, composed in the CE in northern , prophesies escalating global conflicts, including invasions by "barbarian" forces from the Islamic world symbolizing materialistic and theistic threats to . These disturbances culminate in a righteous war led by the king of Shambhala, establishing a golden age of peace and wisdom, ultimately paving the way for Maitreya's arrival to guide humanity toward collective enlightenment. Buddhist prophecy fundamentally differs from Western counterparts by arising from karmic foresight—intuitive knowledge of cause and effect gained through and —rather than prophetic calls from a personal , placing emphasis on individual cultivation of for all practitioners. This approach highlights personal agency in realizing prophetic fulfillments, such as contributing to the conditions for Maitreya's era through ethical living and bodhisattva aspirations.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, prophecy manifests through the concept of divine incarnations and cosmic cycles outlined in ancient scriptures, where deities intervene to restore order amid moral decline. Central to this is the , the ten principal avatars of , who descend to uphold (cosmic order and righteousness) during periods of chaos. These avatars, detailed in texts like the , progress from aquatic forms symbolizing primordial creation to human and future manifestations, illustrating an evolutionary restoration of balance. The , composed between the 4th century BCE and 1000 CE, serve as key repositories for these narratives, blending mythology with eschatological foresight. The tenth avatar, , represents the ultimate prophetic figure, prophesied to appear at the end of the current as a on a white horse named , wielding a to eradicate evil and reinstate . In the (c. 9th–10th century CE), is depicted as born to a named Vishnuyasha in the village of , where he will chastise the mlecchas (barbarians or unrighteous) and protect the virtuous, marking the transition to a new of purity. This avatar embodies renewal rather than final judgment, aligning with Hinduism's emphasis on cyclical rejuvenation over permanent end times. Prophetic visions of dharma's decline and renewal appear prominently in the (c. 400 BCE–400 CE), where seers like foresee escalating moral decay across the yugas, from the virtuous to the strife-ridden , culminating in societal corruption, shortened lifespans, and environmental upheaval. Similarly, the elaborates on these themes, predicting the erosion of ethical norms in —such as the rise of and disregard for spiritual authority—followed by divine intervention through avatars like to revive righteousness. These texts portray prophecy not as isolated predictions but as integral to the epic's moral framework, urging adherence to amid foreseen turmoil. Hindu prophecy operates within a cyclical time framework of yugas—Satya, Treta, Dvapara, and —spanning millions of years in repeating cycles (mahayugas), contrasting with linear eschatologies by emphasizing eternal recurrence rather than a singular . Rishis, or ancient seers, access these prophetic insights through deep and intuitive perception, acting as conduits for divine truths revealed in the and later texts; they "see" (drashtas) cosmic patterns without direct divine dictation, underscoring meditation's role in unveiling future cycles of decline and renewal. This visionary tradition, rooted in Vedic rishis like those of the , informs Puranic prophecies, where foresight serves ethical guidance over .

Indigenous and Regional Prophecies

Native American Traditions

In Native American traditions, prophecy often emerges from oral narratives, spiritual visions, and communal rituals, serving as a means to interpret cosmic balance, warn of disruptions, and guide cultural renewal amid historical pressures like . These prophecies are deeply intertwined with the natural world and ancestral spirits, transmitted through generations without written texts, emphasizing harmony between humans, land, and the divine. Central to this prophetic framework are vision quests, solitary rites of passage involving , isolation, and in sacred landscapes, where individuals seek direct communion with spirits to receive foreknowledge or guidance. Rooted in shamanic practices that induce ecstatic states through drumming, chanting, or natural elements, these quests enable prophets—often medicine people or spiritual leaders—to discern future events and prescribe restorative actions for their communities. A prominent example is the Seneca (Sganyodaiyo, c. 1735–1815), whose visions in 1799 amid the Confederacy's decline due to European encroachment revived traditional practices while adapting to new realities. In a series of revelations, received the Gai'wiio' ("Good Message"), a moral code that condemned , , and excessive materialism—vices exacerbated by colonial trade—while promoting temperance, family unity, and selective integration of Christian elements to foster Seneca self-determination. This prophetic revival, endorsed by figures like , helped sustain cultural identity during the early , blending indigenous spirituality with responses to land loss and assimilation pressures. Apocalyptic prophecies also feature prominently, as seen in the movement of the late 1880s, initiated by the Paiute prophet (Jack Wilson, c. 1858–1932) during a time of widespread Native dispossession following U.S. expansion. Wovoka's visions, induced by solar eclipses and illness, foretold a messianic renewal: through ritual dances invoking protective ghost shirts, white settlers would vanish, buffalo herds would return, and deceased ancestors would resurrect, restoring pre-colonial abundance. Spreading rapidly among Plains tribes like the Lakota and , the symbolized resistance and hope, though it tragically culminated in the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre, underscoring the tensions between prophetic aspiration and colonial suppression. Tribal variations highlight the diversity of these traditions, such as the prophecies preserved in the Tribal and oral histories, which describe cyclical world purifications to correct imbalances caused by human greed and environmental disregard. According to these accounts, the current follows destructions of prior worlds by fire, ice, and flood; signs of impending purification include cobwebs in the sky (airplanes), gourd of ashes (atomic bombs), and a "blue star" (comets or ), culminating in a great shaking of the earth to separate the faithful from the corrupt. These visions, shared by Hopi elders like Thomas Banyacya in the , emphasize and warn of global catastrophe if is not restored.

Chinese Prophecy

Chinese prophetic traditions emerged in ancient times through practices of that intertwined with imperial and cosmology, serving as mechanisms to interpret divine will and legitimize political authority. These traditions emphasized querying forces—often ancestors or —for guidance on future events, reflecting a where was not merely predictive but instrumental in maintaining cosmic harmony and dynastic stability. The earliest known form of Chinese prophecy is divination from the late (c. 1600–1046 BCE), particularly prominent around 1200 BCE. Kings and diviners inscribed questions about harvests, wars, illnesses, or royal progeny on the scapulae of oxen or plastrons of turtles, then applied heat to create cracks whose patterns were interpreted as responses from ancestral spirits or deities. This practice, evidenced by over 150,000 fragments unearthed at , functioned as a prophetic tool to discern auspicious timings and outcomes, reinforcing the Shang rulers' perceived communion with the divine and their role as intermediaries between heaven and earth. inscriptions thus integrated prophecy into state rituals, where favorable omens affirmed the ruler's efficacy in upholding cosmic order. With the transition to the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE), prophetic methods evolved, most notably through the I Ching (Book of Changes), compiled around 1000 BCE as a foundational text for divination. This work employs hexagrams—configurations of six broken or unbroken lines generated via yarrow stalks or later coins—to provide guidance on future prospects and moral decisions, interpreting patterns as reflections of changing cosmic forces (qi). Used by Zhou kings to navigate political uncertainties, the I Ching embedded prophecy within a cyclical philosophy of change, influencing imperial ideology by advising rulers on aligning actions with heaven's patterns to sustain legitimacy. The advent of Buddhism in China from the first century CE introduced Maitreya prophecies, envisioning the future Buddha's descent to restore dharma amid moral decay, which blended with indigenous millenarianism to inspire movements foretelling societal renewal. Central to Chinese prophetic thought was the Mandate of Heaven (tianming), a Zhou-era concept positing that rulers received divine sanction to govern only through virtuous rule; corruption or calamity signaled its withdrawal, inviting prophetic visions of dynastic overthrow and renewal. This ideology framed history as a cyclical pattern of rise, prosperity, decline, and replacement, where prophecies justified rebellion as heaven's corrective will. A pivotal example is the Yellow Turban Rebellion of 184 CE during the late Han Dynasty, a Daoist-inspired millenarian uprising led by Zhang Jue and his Taiping Dao sect. Followers, donning yellow headscarves as symbols of earth renewing heaven, invoked apocalyptic scriptures like the Taiping Jing to prophesy the Han's loss of the Mandate due to corruption and famine, promising a "Great Peace" era under new saviors. Though suppressed, the rebellion exemplified how prophetic narratives mobilized peasants and challenged imperial authority, perpetuating the dynastic cycle motif throughout Chinese history.

Notable Prophets and Predictions

Nostradamus

Michel de Nostredame, commonly known as , was born in December 1503 in , , to a family of Jewish origin that had converted to Catholicism. He trained as a physician and , earning a from the in 1529, and gained renown for treating plague victims during outbreaks in the 1530s and 1540s using innovative practices. By the 1550s, Nostradamus had shifted focus to , publishing annual almanacs that blended medical knowledge with celestial predictions, which attracted patronage from . In 1555, Nostradamus published Les Prophéties, a seminal work consisting of 942 quatrains—four-line verses—organized into "centuries" of 100 poems each, purportedly foretelling events up to the year 3797. These quatrains were written in a cryptic mix of , Greek, Italian, Latin, and , deliberately obscure to evade amid the Inquisition's scrutiny of prophecy. He claimed the visions arose from trance-like states induced by into a brass bowl of water, informed by his studies. Nostradamus's methods integrated astrology, drawing on planetary alignments and horoscopes, with elements of Kabbalistic mysticism from his Jewish heritage, including and symbolic interpretations of sacred texts. This synthesis allowed him to frame prophecies as divinely inspired warnings rather than sorcery. Notable interpretations include Century I, 14, often linked to the (1789–1799) for its reference to "the enslaved populace" rising in chants and demands against tyranny, symbolizing the . Similarly, Century II, 24, mentioning "beasts ferocious with hunger will cross the rivers" and a leader named "Hister," has been retrofitted to predict Adolf Hitler's rise and (1939–1945), evoking the Nazi invasion of Europe. The work was expanded to ten centuries in a 1558 edition during his lifetime. Nostradamus died in July 1566 in , but his legacy endured through posthumous reprints and editions of . In the 20th and 21st centuries, reinterpretations proliferated, with scholars and enthusiasts applying quatrains to events like the atomic bombings and , though academic analyses emphasize in these associations. Modern interpretations, such as those suggesting a "fireball from the " as a potential cosmic catastrophe or global conflict toward the end of 2025, reflect the text's adaptability to contemporary fears while noting its vagueness. This enduring appeal reflects psychological tendencies toward pattern-seeking in ambiguous , as explored in scientific perspectives on prophecy.

Modern and Secular Prophecies

In the 20th and 21st centuries, prophecies have extended beyond traditional religious frameworks into secular domains, encompassing political dystopias, scientific forecasts, and predictions tied to emerging movements such as new religious groups and technological . These modern interpretations often blend speculative foresight with empirical analysis, warning of societal, environmental, or existential shifts driven by human actions rather than divine intervention. George Orwell's 1949 novel stands as a seminal secular depicting a totalitarian surveillance state, where constant monitoring by "Big Brother" and telescreens erodes personal freedom and truth. Orwell's vision, influenced by Stalinist and wartime , presciently anticipated modern technologies like and , as seen in contemporary debates over government and corporate oversight. The novel's themes have been invoked to critique real-world developments, such as the expansion of digital tracking post-9/11, highlighting its enduring role as a cautionary forecast against . Scientific prophecies gained prominence in the with early warnings about anthropogenic climate change, as researchers began modeling the impacts of rising levels on global temperatures. For instance, ExxonMobil's internal scientists in 1977 accurately projected that emissions could warm the planet by 2–3°C by the end of the century, a forecast that aligned closely with subsequent observations despite the company's later public denial. These predictions, disseminated through reports from bodies like the , emphasized irreversible environmental tipping points, urging policy shifts to mitigate sea-level rise and —outcomes that have materialized in the decades since. A notable example is scientist James Hansen's 1988 testimony to the U.S. , where he warned of global warming's observable effects and projected significant temperature rises, influencing international climate policy and confirming the accuracy of early models. Within new religious movements, propagated end-times prophecies in the , including expectations that marked the invisible return of Christ and the onset of , based on interpretations of biblical chronology. When these events did not unfold as anticipated, the group reinterpreted as the establishment of Christ's heavenly kingdom amid World War I's chaos. Similarly, publications in the 1960s and early 1970s hinted at as a potential year for the world's end, drawing from calculations of 6,000 years of human history; the failure to materialize led to membership fluctuations and doctrinal adjustments, with leaders acknowledging overzealous speculation. UFO-related prophecies emerged in fringe movements, exemplified by , a group founded in the 1970s that blended Christian apocalypticism with extraterrestrial beliefs. Leaders and taught that followers must abandon their physical bodies to ascend to a higher level aboard a trailing the Hale-Bopp comet, culminating in the 1997 of 39 members in . This event underscored the prophetic allure of UFO narratives as salvific escapes from earthly demise, influencing discussions on cult dynamics and millennial expectations in American culture. In the digital age, secular prophecies have increasingly focused on technological transcendence, as articulated by futurist in his 2005 book . Kurzweil forecasted that by 2045, would achieve singularity—a point where machine intelligence surpasses human cognition, enabling exponential advancements in medicine, computation, and human augmentation through . These predictions, grounded in and trends in computing power, posit a merger of human and AI consciousness, potentially eradicating and extending lifespan, though they raise ethical concerns about inequality and control.

Explanations and Interpretations

Religious and Theological Views

In Abrahamic traditions, is often validated through specific theological criteria emphasizing divine authenticity and accuracy. In and , a key test derives from Deuteronomy 18:22, which states that if a prophet's in the name of the fails to occur, it is not from , thereby establishing fulfillment as a primary discernment standard. This criterion underscores prophecy's role as a reliable conduit for divine will, distinguishing true prophets from false ones based on empirical verification of their words. In , the Quran's doctrine of (inimitability) serves as the central theological proof of prophetic validity, asserting that no human can produce a text matching its linguistic, structural, and thematic perfection, as challenged in verses like Quran 2:23. This authenticates as the final , positioning the itself as an ongoing, inimitable that transcends time. Such criteria highlight prophecy's function as a divine-human interface, where the prophet conveys unmatchable truth to guide humanity. Within Christianity, theological debates center on cessationism versus continuationism regarding prophecy's ongoing nature. Cessationists, prevalent among Reformed Protestants, argue that miraculous gifts like prophecy ceased after the apostolic era, upon the completion of the New Testament canon, to preserve scriptural sufficiency as the sole authoritative revelation. In contrast, continuationists, including many charismatics and Pentecostals, maintain that prophecy persists today as a non-authoritative gift for edification, aligned with 1 Corinthians 14's emphasis on building up the church, without equaling canonical Scripture. These positions reflect differing views on the Holy Spirit's active role in post-apostolic divine communication. Interfaith theological perspectives often frame prophecy as a universal mechanism for human-divine encounter, adapting to cultural and temporal contexts. In the , prophecy embodies progressive revelation, wherein successive Manifestations of God—such as Abraham, , , , and Bahá'u'lláh—unfold divine truth incrementally, fostering humanity's spiritual evolution toward unity. Similarly, views prophecy through cyclical renewal, with avatars like prophesied to restore at the end of the , renewing cosmic order in an eternal cycle of decline and regeneration as outlined in Puranic texts. Across these traditions, prophecy thus serves as a dynamic bridge between the eternal divine and evolving human experience, promoting moral and societal renewal.

Psychological and Scientific Perspectives

Psychological theories explain the belief in and interpretation of prophecies through well-established cognitive mechanisms. , a systematic tendency to seek, interpret, and recall information that confirms preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence, leads individuals to view vague or ambiguous prophetic statements as fulfilled after events occur. This bias is particularly evident in retrospective interpretations, where people selectively emphasize matches between predictions and outcomes, such as applying broad quatrains to historical events, thereby reinforcing faith in prophetic accuracy. Similarly, , the perception of meaningful patterns in random data, contributes to seeing prophecies as prescient when coincidences arise. Altered states of consciousness provide another psychological framework for prophetic experiences. In conditions like , hallucinations can manifest as vivid visions or auditory messages that individuals interpret as divine revelations or foretellings, often due to disrupted and heightened suggestibility. Hypnosis, which induces a trance-like state of focused attention and reduced peripheral awareness, similarly produces subjective experiences of insight or prediction that feel prophetic, as the brain's becomes more active, fostering imaginative narratives. These states blur the line between internal and external , leading to profound but non-veridical perceptions of foresight. Neurological studies further illuminate the brain basis of such experiences. Research by in the 1980s hypothesized that mystical and prophetic sensations arise from transient electrical microseizures in the , a region associated with , , and sensory integration. In , for instance, patients frequently report and visions of otherworldly knowledge, which brain imaging links to heightened activity in the , evoking an "oceanic" sense of unity or without external stimuli. Persinger's later experiments in the 1990s using magnetic stimulation (known as the "") aimed to mimic these effects and induce similar religious or prophetic-like experiences, but independent replication attempts have been mixed or failed under controlled conditions, with many attributing reported sensations to suggestibility and expectation rather than the stimulation itself. These findings, along with more recent studies (e.g., fMRI research on religious ), suggest that such experiences are often endogenous phenomena influenced by psychological factors, rather than direct evidence of insights. Scientific skepticism approaches prophecy through empirical scrutiny of prediction outcomes and probabilistic reasoning. Numerous historical prophecies, particularly in doomsday cults, have failed to materialize, yet believers persist due to —the psychological discomfort from holding conflicting cognitions—which motivates rationalization over disconfirmation. Leon Festinger's seminal 1956 study of a UFO expecting global cataclysm illustrated this: after the predicted event passed uneventfully, members doubled down on their faith by proselytizing more vigorously to resolve the tension. Statistically, the fulfillment of specific prophecies by chance is improbable under Bayesian analysis, where prior probabilities of unrelated events aligning precisely are vanishingly small (e.g., the posterior favor or post-hoc fitting unless overrides low priors). This framework underscores that apparent accuracies often stem from vague phrasing allowing multiple interpretations, rendering genuine foresight statistically unlikely without controlled verification.

Prophecy in Literature and Culture

Poetry and Rhetoric

Prophecy has long been intertwined with , serving as an inspired mode of utterance that employs lyrical forms to convey divine warnings, visions, and eschatological insights. In the , the exemplifies this tradition through its compilation of prophetic poetry attributed to the 8th-century BCE Judahite prophet , where oracles function as lyrical warnings against social injustice and national apostasy. These poems, such as Isaiah 1–39, blend vivid and rhythmic structure to denounce Judah's sins, portraying impending doom through metaphors of desolation and divine judgment. This poetic-prophetic mode extended into classical literature, notably in Virgil's Eclogues, where the Fourth (c. 40 BCE) emerges as a messianic poem heralding the birth of a child who will usher in a new , blending imagery with apocalyptic promise. Interpreted by later Christian scholars as a prefiguration of Christ, the eclogue's rhetorical elevation of a political event into cosmic influenced views of as a prophetic . In the , revived this tradition in his prophetic books, such as (1793) and (1794), which fuse biblical allusions with revolutionary fervor to envision cycles of oppression and liberation through mythopoetic narratives. Blake's works, indebted to the biblical prophetic lineage, employ illuminated printing to merge text and image in a vatic style that critiques empire and envisions spiritual renewal. Central to prophetic poetry's rhetorical power are devices like , , and a vatic tone, which amplify the utterance's authority and interpretive depth. Metaphors in Isaiah's oracles, for instance, transform abstract threats into tangible scenes of vineyard destruction or cosmic upheaval, engaging readers emotionally while allowing multiple layers of meaning. fosters ongoing interpretation, as seen in Virgil's , where the child's identity remains open to political or divine readings. This culminates in modern examples like W.B. Yeats's "The Second Coming" (1919), where a prophetic tone evokes post- chaos through metaphors of falcons spiraling out of control and a rough beast slouching toward , blending biblical echoes with modernist dread to warn of civilizational collapse. The vatic tone—marked by oracular urgency and rhythmic —unifies these elements, positioning the poet as a seer whose words transcend the immediate to invoke timeless truths.

Contemporary Media and Arts

In contemporary media, prophecy manifests through dystopian narratives in film, where futuristic visions often echo apocalyptic warnings about humanity's trajectory. Ridley Scott's Blade Runner (1982), adapted from Philip K. Dick's novel, portrays a world of replicants and environmental decay, drawing on prophetic motifs from William Blake's America: A Prophecy to critique imperial overreach and cosmic upheaval, with Roy Batty's monologue evoking a lament for lost divinity amid impending doom. Similarly, the Wachowskis' The Matrix (1999) centers on the Oracle's prophecy of "The One," a messianic figure destined to liberate humanity from simulated oppression, blending Gnostic and Christian eschatological elements to explore belief systems and predestined salvation in a machine-dominated reality. These films use prophecy not as literal foretelling but as a lens for examining technological hubris and existential threats, influencing subsequent sci-fi works on AI and societal collapse. In music, prophecy appears in folk and hip-hop genres as social critique and end-times visions. Bob Dylan's 1960s folk songs, such as "The Times They Are a-Changin'" (1964), positioned him as a prophetic voice for civil rights and anti-war movements, unifying audiences through lyrics that anticipated cultural shifts and moral reckonings in an era of upheaval. His rhetorical style, blending biblical imagery with secular urgency, amplified the decade's social movements, making music a vehicle for collective foresight. In hip-hop, incorporates eschatological themes, as in "Power" (2010) from , which envisions economic and as an apocalyptic reckoning with American inequality and personal . West's work often fuses jeremiadic warnings—traditional prophetic laments against societal decay—with modern beats, reflecting hip-hop's role in voicing marginalized prophecies of transformation or judgment. Digital arts and have amplified prophecy through viral dissemination and algorithmic creation, particularly since the 2010s. The 2012 Mayan calendar phenomenon, misinterpreted as an end-of-world prophecy tied to December 21, 2012, exploded online via memes, forums, and news shares, generating widespread hysteria and humor that highlighted media's power to globalize ancient predictions. More recently, AI-generated content has introduced synthetic prophecies, such as videos depicting scenes or fabricated papal sermons on and , which rack up millions of views and blur lines between divine insight and machine output, raising concerns over in spiritual discourse. These trends underscore how platforms accelerate prophetic narratives, from secular doomsaying to AI-fueled , often detached from traditional sources.

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