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Ziklag (Hebrew: צִקְלַג, romanized: Ṣiqlaḡ) is the biblical name of a town in the Negev region in the southwest of what was the Kingdom of Judah. It was a provincial town in the Philistine kingdom of Gath when Achish was king.[1] Its exact location has not been identified with any certainty.

Identification

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At least 14 sites have been proposed as the location of Ziklag.[2] At the end of the 19th century, both Haluza (by Wadi Asluj, south of Beersheba)[3] and Khirbet Zuheiliqah (northwest of Beersheba and south-southeast of Gaza City) had been suggested as possible locations.[4][5] Conder and Kitchener identified Khirbet Zuheiliqah as the location on the basis of Ziklag being a corruption of Zahaliku, whence also Zuheiliqah.[3]

The more recently proposed identifications for Ziklag are:

In the Bible

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Philistines' original base

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The Book of Genesis (in Genesis 10:14) refers to Casluhim as the origin of the Philistines. Biblical scholars regard this as an eponym rather than a person, and it is thought possible that the name is a corruption of Halusah; with the identification of Ziklag as Haluza, this suggests that Ziklag was the original base from which the Philistines captured the remainder of their territory.[3] It has also been proposed that Ziklag subsequently became the capital of the Cherethites.[3]

Tribal allotment

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In the Book of Joshua's lists of cities of the Israelites by tribe, Ziklag appears both as a town belonging to the Tribe of Judah (Joshua 15:31) and as a town belonging to the Tribe of Simeon (Joshua 19:5). Textual scholars believe these lists were originally independent administrative documents, not necessarily dating from the same time, and hence reflecting changing tribal boundaries.[4]

David receives Philistine Ziklag

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1 Samuel 30 claims that by the time of David, the town was under the control of Philistines, but subsequently was given by their king – Achish – to David, who at that time was seemingly acting as a vassal of the Philistines. David requested "a place in one of the country towns" and was awarded Ziklag, which he used as a base for raids against the Geshurites, the Girzites, and the Amalekites,[16] which he conducted away from Achish's oversight.[17] David's reports to Achish say that he had been conducting raids on Saul's lands in southern Judah and on the Jerahmeelites.

Biblical scholars argue that the town was probably on the eastern fringe of the Philistines' territory, and that it was natural for it to be annexed to Judah when David became king.[18] Since textual scholars regard the compilation of the Book of Joshua as late, probably due to the deuteronomist, it is possible that the tribal allocations in it date from after this annexation, rather than before.[18]

David and the Amalekites

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According to 1 Samuel 30, while David was encamped with the Philistine army for an attack on the Kingdom of Israel, Amalekites raided Ziklag, burning the town and capturing its population without killing them (scholars[who?] think this capture refers to enslavement). But none of the archaeological sites that have been proposed to be Ziklag show any evidence of destruction during the era of David.[19]

In the narrative, when David's men discover that their families have been captured, they become angry with David. David seeks the face of his God to determine whether to pursue the Amalekites. The Lord answers and says to pursue them for he would recover all. Initially, 600 men go in pursuit, but a third of them are too exhausted to go further than the HaBesor Stream. They find an abandoned and starving slave, formerly belonging to one of the Amalekites who had raided Ziklag, and after giving him fig cake, raisin cake, and water, persuade him to lead them to the Amalekite raiders. The slave leads them to the captors' camp and finds them feasting and celebrating, due to the size of their spoil; David's forces engage in battle with them for a night and a day, and are victorious.

Textual scholars ascribe this narrative to the monarchial source of the Books of Samuel; the rival source, known as the republican source (named this due to its negative presentation of David, Saul, and other kings), does not at first glance appear to contain a similar narrative. The same narrative position is occupied in the republican source by the story of Nabal,[20] who lived in the region south of Hebron (which includes the Negev).[18] There are some similarities between the narratives, including David leading an army in revenge (for Nabal's unwillingness to give provisions to David), with 400 of the army going ahead and 200 staying behind,[18] as well as David gaining Abigail as a wife (though in the Ziklag narrative he regains her), as well as several provisions, and a jovial feast in the enemy camp (i.e., Nabal's property). There are also several differences, such as the victory and provisions being obtained by Abigail's peaceful actions rather than a heroic victory by David, the 200 that stayed behind doing so to protect the baggage rather than due to exhaustion, the main secondary character being the wife of the enemy (Nabal) rather than their former slave, David's forces being joined by damsels rather than rejoining their wives, and Nabal rather than the Amalekites being the enemy.[citation needed]

The Books of Samuel go on to mention that as a result, the people the Amalekites took were released, and the spoil that the Amalekites had taken, including livestock, and spoil from attacks elsewhere, were divided among David's men, including the third that had remained at the Besor. This ruling, that even those left behind would get a share, is a response by David to those who believed only the two-thirds of David's men who had battled with the Amalekites should get a reward. A similar ruling is given in the Priestly Code (Numbers 31:27) and in Joshua 22:8. Scholars[who?] believe that these rulings derive from the decision in regard to the Amalekite spoil, rather than vice versa.[18]

According to the text, once back at Ziklag, David sends portions of the spoil to the various community leaders within Judah; the text gives a list of the locations of the recipients, but they are all just within the Negev.[18]

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ziklag

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Ziklag is an ancient settlement mentioned in the as a town in the region of southern , originally allotted to the within the territory of Judah ( 15:31; 19:5). It gained prominence during the time of David, who received it as a from the Philistine Achish of Gath while fleeing from Saul, using it as a base for military raids against neighboring groups (1 Samuel 27:6). The town was later destroyed by Amalekite raiders while David was absent, but he pursued and recovered it, distributing spoils to allied elders (1 Samuel 30). Archaeological evidence suggests Ziklag was a Philistine-influenced site with layers of occupation dating to the 12th–10th centuries BCE. Excavations at Khirbet a-Ra'i, located between and Lachish, have uncovered a rural settlement from the early 10th century BCE—contemporary with —featuring Philistine-style , storage jars, and evidence of destruction by fire, possibly linked to the Amalekite raid described in the . This site, explored since 2015 by teams from the , , and the , shows continuity from an earlier 12th–11th century BCE Philistine village, with radiocarbon-dated artifacts including red-slipped and hand-burnished vessels matching those from nearby Philistine cities like Gath and . The identification of Ziklag remains debated among scholars, with traditional proposals favoring Tell esh-Shari'a (Tel Sera) near the Gaza-Beersheba road, a larger site excavated in the 1970s that spans from the period to early Islamic times and exhibits Philistine cultural elements. Other candidates include Tell el-Hesi and Tel Masos, but Khirbet a-Ra'i stands out for its specific alignment with the biblical timeline of Philistine control transitioning to Judahite influence during David's era. Post-exilic texts indicate Ziklag was resettled by returning Judeans after the ( 11:28).

Name and Etymology

Biblical Naming

In the Hebrew Bible, the name Ziklag (Hebrew: צִקְלַג) first appears in the Book of Joshua within lists delineating tribal territories in the land of Canaan. It is enumerated as one of the southernmost cities allotted to the tribe of Judah, specifically in Joshua 15:31, where it is grouped with other Negev settlements such as Madmannah and Hormah. This initial reference positions Ziklag as a boundary town in Judah's inheritance, emphasizing its role in the geographical division following the Israelite conquest. The name recurs shortly thereafter in Joshua 19:5, incorporated into the allotment for the tribe of Simeon, whose territory was enclaved within Judah's borders; here, Ziklag is listed alongside Beer-sheba and Hormah, reflecting overlapping tribal claims in the southern region. A notable orthographic variation occurs in 1 Chronicles 4:30, where the name is spelled צִיקְלָג (Tsiqelag), differing slightly from the more common צִקְלַג form used elsewhere, possibly indicating a scribal or dialectal distinction in ancient Hebrew manuscripts. Subsequent biblical naming of Ziklag shifts to narrative contexts during the monarchic period. In 1 Samuel 27:6, it is identified as the Philistine-controlled town granted to David by Achish of Gath, marking its transition from Israelite inheritance to a temporary refuge for David and his men. The name appears repeatedly in 1 Samuel 30, recounting the Amalekite raid on Ziklag, its destruction by fire, and David's recovery of captives and spoils from the site. It is invoked again in 2 Samuel 1:1 as the location where an Amalekite messenger reports Saul's death to David, underscoring Ziklag's significance as a pivotal station in David's pre-kingship wanderings. Finally, Ziklag is named in post-exilic texts as a resettled village. 11:28 lists it among the towns repopulated by returning Judean s, signifying its enduring association with the in the restored community. Across these references, the name consistently denotes a southern Judean locale, with no explicit biblical explanation for its derivation, though its recurrence ties it to themes of , , and divine provision.

Linguistic Origins

The name Ziklag (Hebrew: צִקְלַג, romanized: Ṣiqlāḡ) appears in the as a place name, first attested in the list of Judahite towns in 15:31. Its remains debated among scholars, with no consensus on a definitive , reflecting its likely non-Israelite origins tied to Philistine settlement in the region during the early (circa 12th century BCE). The name's form suggests an exogenous linguistic influence, distinct from typical Canaanite or Hebrew toponyms in the . One prominent theory links Ziklag to the Tjekker (or T-k-r), a subgroup of the mentioned in Egyptian records from the reign of (circa 1186–1155 BCE), such as the inscriptions. In this view, the name derives from an Egyptian rendering of a non-Semitic term, possibly denoting a "place of the Tjekker" or "Siklu-place," where "Siklu" refers to another (the ) associated with the Tjekker in Anatolian or Aegean contexts. This etymology aligns with the biblical portrayal of Ziklag as a Philistine-controlled town granted to (1 Samuel 27:6), underscoring early migrations of Aegean-derived peoples into southern . An alternative proposal interprets Ziklag through a lens, suggesting it means "white walls," from roots *kweid- (white) and *legh- (lie flat, as in walls or enclosures), evoking structures built with white limestone or common in Philistine architecture. This derivation posits an Indo-European substrate in Philistine , consistent with archaeological evidence of Aegean-style and building techniques at proposed Ziklag sites. Both theories highlight the name's non-Semitic character, distinguishing it from neighboring Hebrew places like or Ziph, and support its identification as a Philistine foundation later incorporated into Judahite .

Location and Identification

Biblical Geography

In the Hebrew Bible, Ziklag is first mentioned as one of the southern cities allotted to the after the Israelite conquest of . It appears in a list of towns in the district, specifically alongside Madmannah and Sansannah ( 15:31), placing it within the arid, semi-desert expanse of southern Judah's territory, characterized by sparse settlements and proximity to trade and migration routes. Ziklag is also enumerated among the cities assigned to the , whose inheritance consisted of enclaves within Judah's southern lands ( 19:5). In this context, it is listed with Beth-marcaboth, Hazar-susah, and others, underscoring the interconnected tribal geographies in the , where Simeon's holdings were integrated into Judah's broader domain to accommodate population needs. The Books of further illuminate Ziklag's strategic position on the frontier between Israelite and Philistine territories. , king of Gath—one of the five major Philistine city-states—grants Ziklag to as a base during his exile from , noting that it pertained to the kings of Judah even then (1 27:6). This border location facilitated 's raids on Geshurites, Girzites, and Amalekites in the 's eastern fringes (1 27:8), while exposing the town to incursions, as seen when Amalekites overran and burned it (1 30:1). Later, news of 's death reaches at Ziklag, reinforcing its role as a pivotal outpost in the region's volatile (2 1:1; 4:10).

Modern Proposed Sites

The identification of biblical Ziklag remains one of the most debated topics in , with scholars proposing at least fourteen potential sites since the 19th century, primarily in the and regions of southern . These proposals draw on geographical clues from 1 Samuel 27 and 30, which place Ziklag in Philistine territory granted to yet bordering Judahite lands, as well as archaeological evidence of I-II settlements (ca. 1200–586 BCE). No single site has achieved consensus due to inconsistencies in , stratigraphy, and historical continuity. One of the most widely supported candidates is Tell esh-Shariʿah (Tel Seraʿ), located midway between and Gaza on the western edge of the Beersheba Valley, at an elevation of about 535 feet (163 meters). Proposed by Yohanan Aharoni and endorsed by scholars including Benjamin Mazar, Zecharia Kallai, Anson Rainey, Nadav Naʾaman, and Joe D. Seger, it features extensive Philistine pottery and fortifications from the 12th–11th centuries BCE, aligning with Ziklag's portrayal as a Philistine . Excavations by Eliezer D. Oren in the revealed continuous occupation from the period through the , including a destruction layer in the early BCE potentially linked to later Judahite activity. However, critics note a mid-12th to 11th-century BCE habitation gap and dominant Philistine rather than Judahite , questioning its fit with David's Judahite base in the 11th–10th centuries BCE. Tell el-Halif (Tel Halif, ancient Khuweilfeh), situated on the southwestern edge of Judah's central hill country near the border, was first suggested by Albrecht Alt in 1935 and later supported by Joe D. Seger in 1984. Its strategic position overlooking the matches descriptions of David's raids into Philistine territory, and excavations uncovered Early and Late remains (ca. 3200–2350 BCE and 1550–1200 BCE), with some Iron Age I pottery. Yet, the site's sparse Iron Age I-II occupation—lacking fortified structures or evidence of continuous settlement around 1000 BCE—has led to its rejection by many, including Volkmar Fritz, who argued it shows no significant activity during the United Monarchy period. A more recent and prominent proposal is Khirbet al-Raʾi (Khirbet er-Raʿi), located 4.5 miles (7 km) northeast of Lachish in the northeastern , near the Shephelah-Judah boundary. Advanced by excavation directors Yosef Garfinkel, Kyle McCarter, and others since 2019, this site features over 20 large dated to the 11th–10th centuries BCE, suggesting a major grain storage center that could correspond to a "mount of the granary" interpretation of the toponym Ziklag. A destruction layer with unlooted and arrowheads around 1000 BCE aligns textually with the Amalekite raid in 1 Samuel 30, while its proximity to Judah (about 18 miles/29 km from ) fits David's movements without deep Philistine penetration. Ongoing digs have yielded Judahite-style and ceramics, supporting its role as a Davidic refuge under Philistine , though some scholars like and Aren Maeir debate the dating and Judahite attribution. Other proposals include Tel Masos (Khirbet Meshaʿsh), advocated by Frank Crüsemann in 1973 for its I village remains but dismissed due to abandonment by the early 10th century BCE and lack of later fortifications; and Tel Beer-Sheva (Tell es-Sebaʿ), suggested by Volkmar Fritz in 1993 as distinct from biblical , though it lacks supporting and continuity. Earlier identifications like Tell el-Hesi (proposed by Karl Ritter in 1866) have been largely rejected in favor of Lachish. The debate continues, with future excavations at sites like Khirbet al-Raʾi potentially resolving key discrepancies in and ; however, a 2025 study by Zachary Thomas and Chris McKinney has reinforced Tell esh-Shariʿah as a stronger candidate, arguing that Khirbet al-Raʾi's occupation phases do not match the biblical timeline.

Biblical History

Tribal Allotment

In the biblical account of the Israelite conquest and settlement of , Ziklag is first listed as one of the cities in the southern region allotted to the . This assignment occurs within the broader description of Judah's territorial inheritance, which encompasses a list of towns from the extreme south to more central areas. Specifically, Ziklag appears in Joshua 15:31, grouped with other settlements such as Madmannah and Hazar-gaddah, emphasizing its position in the arid, frontier-like district. Following the initial division to Judah, certain cities within Judah's expansive portion—including Ziklag—were reassigned to the to form their inheritance, as Judah's land was deemed too large for one tribe alone. This redistribution is detailed in 19:1–9, where Ziklag is enumerated in verse 5 among Simeon's towns, such as and Moladah, all drawn from Judah's southern borders. The text explicitly notes in 19:9 that Simeon's allotment came "out of the portion of the children of Judah," reflecting an administrative adjustment to balance tribal territories without granting Simeon an independent domain. This dual affiliation underscores Ziklag's location in a transitional zone between Judah and the Philistine coastal plain, where Simeon's enclave was effectively subsumed under Judah's oversight. A parallel tradition in 1 Chronicles 4:28–30 reiterates Ziklag's inclusion in Simeon's holdings, listing it alongside similar southern sites and reinforcing the Chronicler's genealogical emphasis on tribal lineages post-settlement. Scholarly analyses interpret these allotments as reflecting practical land divisions influenced by geography and population needs, rather than strict ethnic boundaries, with Ziklag's placement highlighting the Negev's role as a buffer area.

Philistine Association

Ziklag is prominently associated with the Philistines in the , where it is portrayed as a town under their territorial influence during the period of the Judges and early monarchy. According to the account in 1 27:5–6, , fleeing persecution from King Saul, sought refuge among the and requested a place to dwell from , king of Gath—one of the five major Philistine city-states. granted him Ziklag, establishing it as 's base of operations for a year and four months, during which and his men resided there while ostensibly serving Philistine interests. This transfer underscores Ziklag's status as a Philistine possession, as it was within the domain of Gath and reflected the ' control over peripheral settlements in the southern border regions between and Judah. Biblical scholarship identifies Ziklag as one of the smaller "daughter" cities or villages (Hebrew: banot) affiliated with the Philistine , comprising the primary cities of Gaza, , , Gath, and . These secondary settlements, including Ziklag alongside sites like and Gath-rimmon, functioned as outlying centers that extended Philistine administrative and cultural reach into the and northern regions. The name Ziklag itself may reflect Philistine linguistic influences, potentially derived from Aegean or non-Semitic roots consistent with the Philistines' origins as who settled in around the 12th century BCE. This affiliation highlights Ziklag's role in the broader Philistine network, which dominated the and exerted pressure on emerging Israelite tribes. The Philistine connection is further evidenced by David's strategic deception while at Ziklag, where he conducted raids on groups like the Geshurites, Girzites, and Amalekites—portraying them to as attacks on Judahite targets to maintain favor with the (1 Samuel 27:8–12). However, when the Philistine lords grew suspicious and excluded David from their coalition against (1 Samuel 29), he returned to Ziklag, only to find it sacked by Amalekites (1 Samuel 30). This episode illustrates Ziklag's vulnerability as a outpost in contested Philistine-Judahite borderlands, eventually transitioning to Judahite control after David's rise to kingship, as noted in the statement that Ziklag "belongs to the kings of Judah to this day" (1 Samuel 27:6).

David's Period and Key Events

During David's flight from King Saul, he sought refuge among the , approaching , king of Gath, with his 600 men and their families. granted David the town of Ziklag as a base of operations, allowing him to reside there for one year and four months while conducting raids against Israel's enemies, such as the Geshurites, Girzites, and Amalekites. David deceived by claiming to attack Judah and allied Israelite territories, but in reality targeted groups hostile to Israel, ensuring no survivors to contradict his reports. This period marked Ziklag's transition into a possession of the kings of Judah, reflecting David's growing ties to his future realm. As the assembled at Aphek to confront Saul's forces near Jezreel, included and his men in the rear guard. However, the Philistine lords, wary of David's past loyalties and the Israelite praising his victories over Saul's, demanded his dismissal to avoid potential in battle. reluctantly complied, sending back to Ziklag early the next morning, thus sparing from fighting against his own people—a device underscoring in his path to kingship. Upon returning to Ziklag on the third day, David discovered the town burned and its inhabitants, including the wives and children of his men, taken captive by Amalekite raiders who had exploited the men's absence. Overcome with grief, the warriors turned against , contemplating stoning him, but he "found strength in the his " and consulted the priest via the ephod for guidance. Assured of , David pursued the Amalekites with 400 men—leaving 200 behind due to exhaustion—and, guided by an abandoned Egyptian servant, attacked the raiders from dusk until the following evening, recovering all captives and spoils without loss. In the aftermath, established a dividing the plunder equally among all participants, including those who remained at the Besor Ravine, emphasizing unity and fairness in his leadership. He then distributed portions of the spoils to elders in Judahite cities, strengthening alliances and portraying Ziklag as a hub for his burgeoning support network. This episode highlights David's resilience and strategic piety, transforming a into a consolidation of among his followers.

Archaeological Investigations

Major Excavation Sites

The identification of biblical Ziklag has prompted excavations at multiple sites in southern , particularly in the and northern , where Iron Age I remains indicative of Philistine and early Judahite occupation have been sought. Among the principal candidates, at least 14 locations have been proposed over the past century and a half, with scholarly reviews emphasizing six key sites based on topographical, biblical, and archaeological criteria. Major digs have focused on from the 12th-10th centuries BCE, aligning with Ziklag's narrative role as a Philistine gifted to . One of the earliest and most extensively excavated candidates is Tel Sera' (Tell esh-Shari'ah), located in the northwestern near Nahal . Excavations were conducted over six seasons from 1972 to 1979 by Eliezer D. Oren of Ben-Gurion University, uncovering 13 stratigraphic layers spanning the to Byzantine periods. In Layer VIII (12th-11th centuries BCE), a Philistine city was revealed, built atop Canaanite ruins, featuring pottery and linked to the Sea Peoples' arrival; no destruction layer separated this from the subsequent Israelite Layer VII (10th-9th centuries BCE), suggesting cultural continuity. This site's Philistine material and position on trade routes have long supported its identification as Ziklag, though later proposals have challenged it. Another significant site is Tel Halif (Tell el-Khuweilifeh), situated in the southern west of Lahav. Proposed as Ziklag by Albrecht Alt in the early 20th century, it has been investigated since 1976 through the Lahav Research Project, directed initially by Joe D. Seger and later by Oded Borowski and Paul F. Jacobs in four phases through 2009. I remains (Stratum VII, ca. 1200-900 BCE) include stone-lined storage pits, Philistine-style "degenerate" , and a clay figurine, indicating peripheral Philistine influence. II layers (Strata VIB-VIA, 8th-7th centuries BCE) show a fortified Judahite town with textile workshops, destroyed around 701 BCE, possibly by Assyrian forces; however, the site's limited Philistine destruction evidence has weakened its Ziklag candidacy in recent assessments. A prominently proposed site is Khirbet a-Ra'i (Khirbet er-Ra'i), in the Judean foothills between and Lachish. Excavations began in 2015 under Yosef Garfinkel and Saar Ganor of the Hebrew University and , targeting a 10-dunam mound with multi-period occupation peaking in the . Key I findings (12th-10th centuries BCE) include Philistine such as bowls and oil lamps, a large administrative building, small dwellings, an oil press, and a rare Proto-Canaanite inscription on a jar reading "Jerubba'al" (late 12th-early 11th century BCE), suggesting a settlement between and Judah. A destruction layer dated to ca. 1000 BCE, with carbon-14 results aligning with the Amalekite raid narrative in 1 30, has bolstered claims that this is Ziklag. However, a 2025 proposal by Zachary Thomas and Chris McKinney in the Israel Exploration Journal argues for Tell esh-Shari’a as a better fit, citing geographic placement in the northern and better alignment with ancient sources, while critiquing Khirbet a-Ra'i for mismatches in location and occupation phases. Other candidates, such as Tel Beer-Sheva and Tel Masos, have undergone major excavations revealing fortifications and settlements, but their stronger associations with biblical and Arad, respectively, have diminished Ziklag proposals. Overall, while no consensus exists, these digs have illuminated the region's transition from Philistine to Judahite control during the United Monarchy era.

Key Discoveries and Interpretations

Excavations at Khirbet a-Ra'i, located in the Judean foothills between and Lachish, have yielded significant evidence supporting its identification as the biblical Ziklag, with digs commencing in 2015 under the direction of archaeologists Yosef Garfinkel and Saar Ganor from the , in collaboration with the and . The site revealed a Philistine settlement dating to the 12th-11th centuries BCE, characterized by massive stone structures up to 1.6 meters wide, foundation offerings including bowls and oil lamps placed beneath floors, and akin to that found at major Philistine centers like Gath, , , and . These findings indicate an early Philistine presence, transitioning to Judean occupation in the early BCE, as evidenced by nearly 100 complete vessels for oil and wine storage, identical in style to those from the nearby site of (proposed as biblical Sha'arayim), and confirmed by to around 1000 BCE. A prominent destruction layer at the site, marked by intense burning and collapsed structures, has been interpreted as the result of the Amalekite raid described in 1 Samuel 30, where Ziklag was attacked and looted during David's time as a Philistine ally. This layer, dated to the early BCE via analysis, aligns with the biblical timeline of David's refuge there before his kingship, suggesting a shift from Philistine to Israelite control under his influence. Scholars and Ganor argue that the site's small size, lack of significant remains, strategic proximity to Philistine Gath (about 15 km away), and absence of epigraphic contradictions make it a strong candidate for Ziklag, fulfilling geographical and historical criteria outlined in 15:31 and 1 Samuel 27. The discoveries counter minimalist views questioning the historicity of David's era by providing material evidence of a fortified settlement in the region during the United Monarchy's formative period. However, the identification remains debated among archaeologists, with alternative sites like Tel Sera (Tell esh-Shari'a) in the western proposed by scholars such as Anson Rainey and Yohanan Aharoni based on its location along Nahal Gerar and layers. A 2025 article by Zachary Thomas and Chris McKinney in the Israel Exploration Journal reinforces Tell esh-Shari’a, highlighting its continuous occupation and alignment with sources like Eusebius’s Onomasticon, while arguing Khirbet a-Ra'i is too far east in the and its phases do not fit the biblical context. Excavations at Tel Sera, conducted by Eliezer Oren in the 1970s and 1980s, uncovered an Egyptian fortress from the Late Bronze Age transitioning to Philistine pottery in , but the site's thin I stratum, heavy Egyptian influence, and southern position—potentially too distant from Philistine heartlands—have led critics to argue it does not match the biblical description of a Philistine-allotted town in Judahite territory. Other candidates, such as Tel Halif, have been dismissed due to mismatched destruction patterns or insufficient Philistine material. The Winter 2025 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review includes an article questioning whether Khirbet al-Ra'i is the site of David's refuge, underscoring the lack of consensus. While Khirbet a-Ra'i's findings correlate with aspects of the biblical narrative, the absence of inscriptions bearing the name "Ziklag" means definitive confirmation awaits further epigraphic evidence or scholarly agreement in historical geography.

References in Later Sources

Ancient Retellings

Flavius , in his (c. 93–94 CE), provides one of the earliest non-biblical retellings of Ziklag's role in the life of , closely paralleling the accounts in 1 Samuel while adding minor chronological and narrative details. In Book 6, Chapter 10, Josephus describes how , fleeing Saul's pursuit, seeks refuge with , king of Gath, who grants him Ziklag as a settlement for David and his 600 companions. Josephus specifies that David resided there for "four months and twenty days," during which he conducted raids against the Geshurites and Amalekites—groups he portrays as enemies of the —to maintain the illusion of loyalty to Achish by claiming the spoils came from Judahite territories. This period of residence at Ziklag underscores David's strategic maneuvering, as emphasizes his private attacks spared Philistine interests and bolstered his provisions without arousing suspicion. Later in Book 6, Chapter 14, recounts the dramatic Amalekite incursion: while David and his men were absent aiding the Philistines against , the Amalekites raided Ziklag, burned it, and captured its inhabitants, including David's two wives, and . Upon returning, David pursues the raiders to the Besor brook, recovers all captives and spoils unharmed, and executes most of the Amalekites, distributing the recovered goods to his allies in Judah as a gesture of solidarity. Josephus continues the narrative in Book 7, Chapter 1, linking Ziklag to the immediate aftermath of Saul's death. After two days back at the ruined Ziklag, David receives a report from an Amalekite messenger detailing the battle at , complete with Saul's crown and armlet as proof; Josephus highlights David's mourning and execution of the messenger for his role in Saul's demise. Directed by divine inquiry to , David relocates from Ziklag with his household and forces, where the anoints him king, marking Ziklag's transition from refuge to launchpad for his Judahite kingship. These retellings in Josephus serve to integrate Ziklag into a broader Hellenistic-Jewish historical framework, portraying it as a pivotal outpost that facilitated David's survival and eventual rise, though without significant deviations from the biblical source material beyond stylistic elaborations on interpersonal bonds and tactical decisions. No other surviving ancient Jewish or Greco-Roman texts, such as those by of or in the , provide distinct retellings of Ziklag's events, leaving Josephus as the principal extra-biblical ancient interpreter.

Medieval and Modern Mentions

In medieval pilgrimage accounts, references to Ziklag are sparse, reflecting its obscurity in post-biblical Christian travel narratives. The Swiss Dominican friar Felix Fabri provides one of the earliest detailed mentions during his 1483 journey through the , as recorded in his Evagatorium in Terræ Sanctæ, Arabiæ et Egypti Peregrinationem and Sionpilger. Fabri identified the biblical Ziklag—rendered as Sicelech—with ruins on a prominent tell along the caravan route from to Gaza in the , describing it as an ancient city mount with remnants of walls, buildings, and a surrounding fertile plain suitable for settlement. This observation, made on August 28–29, 1483, marks Ziklag as a recognizable landmark amid the region's desolate landscape. Pre-modern accounts build on such pilgrim observations. The French Capuchin friar Eugène Roger, who resided in the from 1630 to 1633, referenced Ziklag (Siceleg) in his 1651 travelogue La Terre Sainte. He situated the site about five leagues east of Gaza and four leagues southeast of , depicting it as a small, impoverished village inhabited by Muslim (Moors) amid ancient ruins, consistent with Fabri's location near Tell esh-Shariʿah (Tel Seraʿ). Roger's firsthand description underscores Ziklag's continuity as a minor settlement in Ottoman-era . The saw Ziklag enter systematic biblical scholarship through exploratory surveys. American biblical geographer Edward Robinson, in his groundbreaking 1838 publication Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea, examined potential Negev sites for Ziklag based on itineraries, topography, and biblical coordinates, proposing alignments with ruins like those near the Brook of Egypt. Robinson's work, informed by on-site visits in 1838, established a methodological framework for identifying ancient places, influencing subsequent identifications such as Tell el-Hesi or Khirbet ʿUmm el-Biqār. In 20th-century literature, Ziklag symbolizes exile and precarious refuge. Israeli writer S. Yizhar's 1958 novel Days of Ziklag (Yemei Ziklag) reimagines the biblical events—David's sojourn amid Philistine territory and the Amalekite raid—as a for Israeli soldiers' vigil during in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The narrative delves into themes of isolation, ethical tension, and , earning acclaim as a modernist of Hebrew prose for its stream-of-consciousness style and psychological depth. Contemporary mentions in scholarship highlight ongoing debates over Ziklag's location and significance. Since the mid-20th century, studies have proposed over a dozen candidate sites, drawing on Iron Age pottery and destruction layers to link it to Philistine and Judahite contexts, with key analyses emphasizing its role in David's early career. Recent works, such as those advocating Khirbet er-Raʾi based on 12th-century BCE evidence, continue to refine these interpretations through interdisciplinary evidence.

References

  1. https://www.bibleplaces.com/ziklag/
  2. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-town-of-ziklag-may-have-been-discovered/
  3. https://www.sci.news/archaeology/biblical-city-ziklag-07426.html
  4. https://biblehub.com/joshua/15-31.htm
  5. https://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Ziklag.html
  6. https://biblehub.com/hebrew/6860.htm
  7. https://biblehub.com/1_samuel/27-6.htm
  8. https://www.gotquestions.org/Ziklag-in-the-Bible.html
  9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348735106_Was_Khirbet_al-Ra%27i_Ancient_Ziklag
  10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1518418
  11. https://biblehub.com/joshua/19-5.htm
  12. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-israel/locating_ziklag/
  13. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00310328.2022.2030182
  14. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233519165_The_Location_of_MedievalPre-Modern_and_Biblical_Ziklag
  15. https://cojs.org/where-is-davids-ziklag/
  16. https://www.timesofisrael.com/as-archaeologists-say-theyve-found-king-davids-city-of-refuge-a-debate-begins/
  17. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27196182
  18. https://courses.lsa.umich.edu/israel-palestine/wp-content/uploads/sites/142/2013/12/020a.pdf
  19. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2027&version=NIV
  20. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2027:6&version=NIV
  21. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2029&version=NIV
  22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20504122
  23. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2030:1-5&version=NIV
  24. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2030:6-8&version=NIV
  25. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2030:9-20&version=NIV
  26. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2030:21-25&version=NIV
  27. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2030:26-31&version=NIV
  28. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00310328.2022.2030182
  29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272248292_The_Location_of_Ziklag_A_Review_of_the_Candidate_Sites_Based_on_Biblical_Topographical_and_Archaeological_Evidence
  30. https://www.biblewalks.com/telsera/
  31. https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/halif357921
  32. https://www.biblewalks.com/alrai/
  33. https://armstronginstitute.org/173-we-have-found-biblical-ziklag
  34. https://www.jns.org/archaeologists-announce-discovery-of-the-biblical-city-of-ziklag/
  35. https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2019/07/09/not-ziklag-says-other-archaeologists/
  36. https://www.afhu.org/2019/07/09/archaeologists-find-city-of-ziklag-refuge-of-biblical-king-david/
  37. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/magazine-issue/biblical-archaeology-review-winter-2025/
  38. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/ant-6.html
  39. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/ant-7.html
  40. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philo/
  41. https://www.pseudepigrapha.com/
  42. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/003103207X162988
  43. https://theuntranslated.wordpress.com/2018/11/01/interview-with-josh-calvo-on-s-yizhars-days-of-ziklag-albert-suissas-aqud-volter-kilpis-alastalon-salissa-unjustly-untranslated-hebrew-and-arabic-literary-works-and-on-the-present-state-of/
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