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In law, coming into force or entry into force (also called commencement) is the process by which legislation, regulations, treaties and other legal instruments come to have legal force and effect. The term is closely related to the date of this transition. The point at which such instrument comes into effect may be set out in the instrument itself, or after the lapse of a certain period, or upon the happening of a certain event, such as a proclamation or an objective event, such as the birth, marriage, reaching a particular age or death of a certain person. On rare occasions,[which?] the effective date of a law may be backdated to a date before the enactment.[citation needed]

To come into force, a treaty or Act first needs to receive the required number of votes or ratifications. Although it is common practice to stipulate this number as a requirement in the body of the treaty itself, it can also be set out in a superior law or legal framework, such as a constitution or the standing orders of the legislature in which it originated.

"Coming into force" generally includes publication in an official gazette so that people know the law or treaty exists.

Treaties

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Main article: Treaty

After their adoption, treaties as well as their amendments may have to follow the official legal procedures of the organisation, such as the United Nations, that sponsored it, including signature, ratification, and entry into force.

Legislation

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See also: Act of Parliament

The process of enactment, by which a bill becomes an Act, is separate from commencement. Even if a bill passes through all necessary stages to become an Act, it may not automatically come into force. Moreover, an Act may be repealed having never come into force.[1]

A country's law could determine that on being passed by lawmakers a bill becomes an act without further ado. However, more usually, the process whereby a bill becomes an Act is well prescribed in general constitutional or administrative legislation. This process varies from country to country, and from political system to political system.

Typically, the process by which a bill becomes an Act includes signature or some other token of assent by the head of state and publication in an official gazette. In some systems, the head of state or some other official is required to definitely signify his approval, as for example in the granting of royal assent in the Commonwealth realms. In others, a bill automatically becomes an Act unless vetoed, as for example in the United States. But these steps do not, in themselves, make an act legally binding on the population. An act is typically brought into force in one of three ways:

  • By means of an explicit commencement date (and sometimes time of day) written into the act itself. It is possible for different sections of an act to come into force at different dates or times.
  • As a result of a commencement order. Usually, an Act or part of an Act may only be brought into force by a commencement order if explicit provision is made. Commencement orders are typically issued by the executive branch of government, though they may also require legislative approval, or at least that the legislature be informed. As with explicit commencement dates, different parts of an act may be brought into force by different commencement orders at different times.
  • Automatically. An Act that does not include explicit commencement dates or provision for commencement orders, or that has dates or provides for commencement orders for only some of its contents, will typically be interpreted as having come into effect at a certain time relative to its enactment. This time is usually specified by an interpretive statute, or, in the absence of such a statute, a legal rule. For example, in the United Kingdom, until late in the 18th century a legal rule interpreted statutes as coming into effect at the start of the legislative session in which they were passed, but Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793 (33 Geo. 3. c. 13) stipulated that future laws without explicit commencement provisions would come into effect on the day on which they received royal assent. A similar example is provided by New Zealand, where an Act without commencement provisions comes into force on the day after the day on which it received royal assent.
  • It is possible for an Act to come into effect through any combination of these three methods.

It is not necessarily the case that a statute which comes into force remains in force until it is repealed; it may be explicitly brought out of force, and perhaps later brought back into force. For example, in Ireland, Section V of the Offences against the State Act 1939 (which provides for the Special Criminal Court) goes in and out of force by government proclamation:[2] it was brought into force on 24 August 1939, out of force on 2 October 1962, and back into force on 26 May 1972.[3]

National practice

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Netherlands

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Since 2007 the government of the Netherlands has been experimenting with common commencement dates for legislation concerned with:

  • public health expenses
  • education
  • environmental matters
  • construction of houses and buildings
  • financial markets
  • taxation.

In these fields, commencement dates must be either 1 January or 1 July.[4]

United Kingdom

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Section 4 of the Interpretation Act 1978 (c. 30) provides:

An Act or provision of an Act comes into force—

(a) where provision is made for it to come into force on a particular day, at the beginning of that day;
(b) where no provision is made for its coming into force, at the beginning of the day on which the Act receives the Royal Assent.[5]

This replaces the corresponding provision in the Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793 (33 Geo. 3. c. 13).

Schedule 1 of that act contains the following definition:

"Commencement", in relation to an Act or enactment, means the time when the Act or enactment comes into force.[6]

Northern Ireland

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Sections 14(1) and (2) of the Interpretation Act (Northern Ireland) 1954 (c. 33 (N.I.)) read:

(1) Every enactment which is not expressed to come into force or operation on a particular day shall come into operation immediately on the expiration of the day before the date of the passing thereof, or, where the enactment is a statutory instrument, of the making thereof.
(2) Where an enactment is expressed to come into force or operation on a particular day (whether such day is before or after the date of the passing of such enactment, or where the enactment is a statutory instrument, of the making thereof, and whether such day is named in the enactment or is to be appointed or fixed or ascertained in any other manner) the enactment shall be construed as coming into force immediately on the expiration of the day before that particular day.[7]

In an enactment the expression "commencement", when used with reference to any statutory provision, means the time at which that provision comes into operation.[8]

Scotland

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Sections 2 and 3 of the Interpretation and Legislative Reform (Scotland) Act 2010,[9] which applies to Acts of the Scottish Parliament and Scottish Statutory Instruments, provide-

2 Commencement of Acts of the Scottish Parliament
(1) Subsection (2) applies where no provision is made for the coming into force of an Act of the Scottish Parliament.
(2) The Act comes into force at the beginning of the day after the day on which the Bill for the Act receives Royal Assent.

3 Commencement of Acts of the Scottish Parliament and Scottish instruments: time

(1) Subsection (2) applies where an Act of the Scottish Parliament or a Scottish instrument provides for the Act or instrument to come into force on a particular day.
(2) The Act or instrument comes into force at the beginning of the day.

This replaces the temporary provision made by the Scotland Act 1998 (Transitory and Transitional Provisions) (Publication and Interpretation etc. of Acts of the Scottish Parliament) Order 1999.

See also

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References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Entry into force

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Entry into force refers to the moment at which a or other international agreement becomes legally binding on the states or parties that have expressed their consent to be bound by it, typically following , , or accession by a required number of participants as specified in the instrument itself. This process ensures that the obligations and rights outlined in the agreement take effect only after these formalities are completed, preventing premature enforcement. In the framework of , the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) provides the primary codification of this concept. Article 24 stipulates that a enters into force in the manner and upon the date it may provide or as the negotiating states agree; in the absence of such provisions, it enters into force as soon as all negotiating states have established their to be bound. For a state that consents after the 's initial entry into force, the applies to that state on the date of its , unless otherwise specified. This mechanism allows treaties to bind only consenting parties while facilitating multilateral cooperation on issues such as , , and . Beyond treaties, the term "entry into force" applies to various legal instruments, including domestic and regional acts. In the , for instance, an act enters into force on the date it specifies or, if none is given, the twentieth day following its publication in the Official Journal. Similarly, national laws often include provisions designating an effective date, after which they impose enforceable rights and obligations, distinguishing entry into force from mere adoption or publication. This broader usage underscores the term's role in demarcating the transition from negotiation or enactment to practical legal operation across jurisdictions.

General Concepts

Definition and Scope

Entry into force denotes the precise moment when a —whether an , domestic , , or organizational —transitions from a stage of negotiation, adoption, or approval to becoming fully binding and enforceable upon its parties or subjects, thereby initiating its operational effects. This pivotal point shifts the instrument from provisional status to active application, compelling compliance and conferring associated rights and duties. In , for instance, it occurs in the manner and on the date specified by the or agreed upon by negotiating states, or, absent such provisions, upon to be bound by all negotiating states. The concept is distinct from preceding sequential stages in the instrument's lifecycle. Adoption involves the consensus on the final text of the instrument, often through or voting at a , but does not impose binding obligations. or accession follows as the formal expression of consent to be bound, typically requiring domestic approval processes, yet it alone does not activate the instrument. Entry into force requires the fulfillment of additional conditions, such as a minimum number of ratifications or a specified timeframe, marking the culmination of these preparatory phases. The scope of entry into force is broad, encompassing diverse legal domains beyond international agreements. In domestic contexts, statutes enter into force on the date of enactment, royal assent, or as explicitly stated within the legislation itself, rendering them applicable within the jurisdiction. Similarly, constitutions and charters, such as the United Nations Charter which entered into force on 24 October 1945 following ratification by the required number of signatories, become operative upon meeting ratification thresholds or designated dates, ending any interim provisional arrangements. This universality underscores entry into force as the endpoint of preparatory periods across public international law, municipal legislation, and institutional frameworks. Historically, the practice of entry into force evolved from in the 19th century, when multilateral treaties began to stipulate conditions like the exchange of ratifications for activation, reflecting the era's growing emphasis on formalized state consent amid expanding diplomatic relations. This customary approach was later codified in modern through Article 24 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, which provides a comprehensive framework applicable to treaties concluded after its own entry into force on 27 1980. The key legal effects include the immediate triggering of substantive obligations under the principle of , the establishment of enforceable rights, and the determination of temporal application—typically prospective from the entry date, though treaties may provide for retroactivity in limited circumstances.

Prerequisites and Conditions

The entry into force of legal instruments, whether international or domestic, typically requires the fulfillment of specific prerequisites that establish binding among the relevant parties. In the international context, common prerequisites include the expression of to be bound through mechanisms such as , , , approval, accession, or any other agreed means, often requiring a minimum number of states to participate for multilateral instruments. These acts formalize a state's commitment, with or accession instruments usually deposited with a designated custodian to confirm adherence. Domestically, similar prerequisites involve internal approvals, such as legislative or executive assent, to ensure the instrument aligns with national constitutional requirements before it gains legal effect. Time-based conditions further delineate when an instrument becomes operative, providing a grace period for preparations or notifications. These may include fixed dates stipulated in the instrument, a specified period after fulfillment of consent requirements—commonly 30 to 90 days post-ratification or deposit—or triggers linked to additional factors like the resolution of reservations. For instance, entry into force might occur upon the deposit of the requisite number of instruments, followed by an elapsed interval to allow states to adjust internally. Reservations, if permissible, can condition full application but do not inherently delay overall entry unless explicitly tied to acceptance by other parties. Provisional application serves as an interim mechanism, creating binding effects for all or part of an instrument before definitive entry into force, provided the instrument itself allows it or negotiating agree otherwise. This approach enables immediate of key provisions while final consents are secured, though it remains terminable by a state upon notification of intent not to become a full . Such provisional arrangements are particularly useful in urgent multilateral contexts, bridging the gap between and full operability without preempting formal conditions. Depositaries play a crucial role in overseeing these processes, acting as impartial custodians—often the Secretary-General for multilateral treaties—to receive instruments, verify compliance, and issue notifications confirming when prerequisites are met. Their functions include informing entitled states of the receipt of required signatures or ratifications, thereby triggering time-based countdowns or other conditions for entry into force. This notification ensures transparency and coordination among parties, preventing disputes over fulfillment timelines. If prerequisites or conditions remain unmet, entry into force is indefinitely postponed, leaving the instrument in a non-binding state until the thresholds are achieved or alternative agreements are reached; some instruments include termination clauses if delays persist beyond a defined period, though this varies by specific provisions. In such scenarios, states retain obligations to refrain from acts undermining the instrument's object and purpose during the interim phase.

International Applications

Treaties

In international law, the entry into force of treaties marks the point at which the obligations and rights outlined in the agreement become legally binding on the parties involved. This process is governed primarily by the provisions of the treaty itself, supplemented by customary international law and the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) of 1969, which codifies standard procedures for treaty conclusion and activation. For bilateral treaties, entry into force typically occurs upon the exchange of instruments of ratification between the two states, confirming their mutual consent to be bound, or on a specified date following signature if the treaty so stipulates. This exchange ensures that both parties have completed their domestic approval processes before the treaty takes effect. Multilateral treaties, involving multiple states, often require by a predetermined number of parties to enter into force, reflecting the need for sufficient collective commitment to ensure viability. For instance, many conventions specify a threshold of around 20 ratifications, while others set higher bars tailored to the treaty's scope. The Convention on the (UNCLOS), adopted in 1982, exemplifies this by requiring 60 ratifications or accessions before entering into force 12 months later, a condition met in 1994. Such thresholds prevent premature activation and promote broad participation. Article 24 of the VCLT outlines the core procedures for entry into force, stating that a treaty enters into force in the manner and upon the date it may provide or as the negotiating States may agree; failing any such provision or agreement, it enters into force as soon as to be bound by the has been established for all the negotiating States. This allows for flexibility, including simplified procedures where is expressed via signature alone if the treaty permits, contrasting with full that involves formal domestic approval and instrument exchange. Reservations, addressed in Article 20, further influence this process: while a state's objection to another's reservation does not automatically prevent the treaty's overall entry into force, it may preclude binding effects between the objecting and reserving states unless the treaty specifies otherwise. Treaty depositaries, often designated by the negotiating states or an like the , play a crucial role in facilitating notification and into . They receive instruments of , verify compliance with formal requirements, issue official notifications to all parties announcing the activation date, and publish the treaty status for transparency. This impartial function ensures orderly implementation and records the treaty's evolution. Prominent examples illustrate both successes and challenges in treaty activation. The , adopted in 1997 as a multilateral agreement, entered into force on February 16, 2005, 90 days after ratification by at least 55 parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, including Annex I countries accounting for 55% of 1990 emissions—a threshold reached after years of diplomatic efforts. Such delays, common in accords due to political and economic hurdles, highlight how stringent conditions can prolong entry into force, sometimes by over a decade, underscoring the balance between inclusivity and urgency in global pacts.

Customary and Other Instruments

Customary international emerges as a source of international obligations through the establishment of two essential elements: a accepted as , comprising consistent state conduct, and opinio juris, the that such practice is legally required. Unlike treaties, lacks a formal entry into force date; it binds states once these elements are sufficiently widespread, representative, and consistent, typically evidenced over time through diplomatic actions, official statements, and judicial decisions. For instance, the prohibition of became a norm of following the 1948 , as affirmed by the (ICJ), binding all states regardless of ratification due to universal acceptance and practice. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolutions, while generally non-binding, play a significant role in the formation and clarification of by evidencing opinio juris or reflecting state practice. Repeated adoption of such resolutions can contribute to the crystallization of norms, particularly when they declare existing custom or influence state behavior, as seen in the ICJ's reliance on UNGA resolutions in the Nicaragua case (1986) to identify rules on non-use of force. Their declaratory effect strengthens over time through consistent invocation in international forums, though they do not independently trigger entry into force without supporting practice. Other instruments, such as regional charters or standards from specialized organizations, may enter into force through mechanisms like collective ratification thresholds, bridging formal and informal . The Constitutive Act of the , adopted in 2000, entered into force on May 26, 2001, thirty days after ratification by two-thirds of the Organization of African Unity's member states (36 out of 53), thereby establishing binding obligations for the union's framework without relying solely on universal custom. Similarly, (ILO) conventions often reflect or contribute to customary norms on labor standards, gaining force upon ratification by member states, though their broader acceptance can evidence evolving custom in areas like at work. Evidentiary thresholds for require demonstration of general practice through diverse sources, as articulated in ICJ . In the * (1969), the ICJ emphasized that for a rule to qualify as custom, state practice must be both extensive and uniform, accompanied by opinio juris, rejecting the equidistance principle as customary due to insufficient evidence at the time. Such proof often draws from treaties as indicative practice, national legislation, and international decisions, with the burden on claimants to show no persistent objectors among relevant states. The evolution of customary norms over time highlights their dynamic nature, particularly for emerging areas without treaty frameworks. In cyberspace, norms such as state sovereignty and non-intervention are increasingly viewed as customary through accumulating state practice and endorsements in UN Group of Governmental Experts reports, though full remains ongoing as digital threats prompt consistent behavioral patterns and legal assertions. This underscores how custom adapts via opinio juris from resolutions and bilateral agreements, entering into force incrementally as acceptance broadens.

Domestic Applications

Legislation

In domestic legislative processes, statutes typically enter into force following enactment by the and subsequent executive assent, such as in parliamentary systems. This assent marks the bill's transformation into an act, after which the may take effect immediately on the date of assent, on a fixed future date, by proclamation or , or under a default provision if unspecified. For instance, in certain systems, a default period of 28 days after assent applies to ensure preparation time. Commencement clauses within the text provide explicit mechanisms for determining the timing of entry into force, allowing for flexibility beyond the standard process. These clauses may specify immediate effect upon assent, a designated , or staggered implementation, such as partial entry where individual sections or provisions activate at different times to accommodate phased rollout. Conditional commencement is also common, tying effectiveness to external events like the of another or administrative milestones, which enables tailored application without uniform delays across the entire act. Publication in an official gazette or registry often serves as a prerequisite or trigger for entry into force, ensuring and accessibility. In systems involving supranational obligations, such as the transposition of directives into national , member states must publish implementing by specified deadlines—typically two years from —to activate the measures, with failure risking infringement proceedings. Legislation generally operates prospectively, applying only to future events after entry into force, with retroactive application disfavored and permitted only in rare cases where expressly stated, such as for procedural adjustments or responses to unforeseen crises. This principle upholds fairness by avoiding disruption to settled expectations, limiting retroactivity to non-substantive matters unless justified by exceptional circumstances like imperatives. Delays in entry into force may arise from practical considerations, including administrative unreadiness for implementation, and are managed through deferred commencement dates or orders postponing activation until resources and infrastructure align. Amendments enacted prior to commencement integrate into the original statute, potentially altering its timing or scope upon eventual entry, while post-commencement changes typically apply prospectively unless specified otherwise.

Constitutions and Charters

The adoption of constitutions typically involves mechanisms such as referendums for public approval, constitutional conventions to draft the document, or legislative supermajorities to ensure broad consensus, with entry into force occurring upon official certification by a or proclamation by the . These processes distinguish constitutions from ordinary due to their foundational role and the need for widespread legitimacy. For instance, referendums have been used in cases like the 1958 , where public vote confirmed on September 28, 1958, while conventions, as in the 1787 U.S. Federal Convention, allow delegates to create a new framework despite initial constraints. Supermajorities, such as Hungary's two-thirds parliamentary requirement, further safeguard against hasty changes. Historical examples illustrate these mechanisms in practice. The U.S. Constitution was drafted by a convention in 1787 and entered into force on March 4, 1789, after by nine states, with becoming the ninth on June 21, 1788. Similarly, South Africa's 1996 Constitution followed an interim phase under the 1993 document; it was adopted by the Constitutional Assembly on May 8, 1996, certified by the , assented to by the President on December 10, 1996, and entered into force on February 4, 1997, with certain fiscal provisions commencing January 1, 1998. Transitional provisions often feature in constitution-making to bridge interim frameworks to permanent ones, specifying durations for implementation and ensuring continuity. Interim constitutions, as temporary instruments, enter into force immediately to stabilize post-conflict or transitional , providing a platform for negotiating the final version. In , the 1993 interim constitution established 34 principles and a two-year timeline for the Constitutional Assembly to produce the final document, facilitating a Government of National Unity during the shift. Schedule 6 of the 1996 outlined these arrangements, including the continuation of existing laws until repealed. Amendments to constitutions generally follow distinct processes that parallel the original adoption requirements, emphasizing supermajorities for . Under Article V of the U.S. Constitution, amendments are proposed by a two-thirds vote in both houses of or by a convention called upon application from two-thirds of state legislatures, and they enter into force upon by three-fourths of the states, either via legislatures or conventions as directs. This mirrors the initial 's state-based approval, with restrictions such as no amendments affecting certain clauses before 1808 or depriving states of equal without consent. Organizational charters, such as those for corporations or NGOs, enter into force upon approval by founding members and official filing, establishing rules akin to constitutional frameworks but at the entity level. For nonprofits, bylaws—detailing internal operations—are adopted by the initial board or members at the first meeting following incorporation and become effective immediately, subject to the certificate of formation. In the U.S., congressionally chartered nonprofits under Title 36 receive their through legislative act, effective upon passage, granting federal recognition for purposes like patriotic or educational activities. This approval process ensures the charter's enforceability from inception, much like a constitution's .

Jurisdictional Examples

Netherlands

In the , the entry into force of treaties follows a structured process influenced by its civil law tradition and monist legal system. Treaties require prior approval by the States General, the bicameral parliament consisting of the and the , before the government can proceed with . Once approved, the instrument of is deposited with the relevant international , and the treaty text, along with details of its applicability, is published in the official known as the Tractatenblad. Under Article 93 of the , treaties and other international regulations become binding domestically upon , unless the treaty itself specifies a different date for entry into force. This ensures transparency and integration into the national legal order without needing further legislative transformation. For domestic , the process emphasizes as a prerequisite for validity. Acts of , after adoption by the States General and , must be published in the Staatsblad, the official Bulletin of Acts, Orders, and Decrees, under the responsibility of the Minister of Justice. Article 88 of the mandates that such acts shall not enter into force prior to , with the specific date typically stipulated within the act itself to allow for administrative and awareness. While no uniform default period exists across all laws, many statutes set a delay of three months following to facilitate , reflecting a balance between legislative efficiency and practical enforceability. Constitutional amendments adhere to a rigorous procedure to safeguard the fundamental framework. A bill to amend the is first passed by a simple majority in both houses of the States General, followed by dissolution of the and new elections. At the subsequent second reading, approval requires at least a two-thirds of votes cast in each house, after which the King provides . The amended text is then published by royal decree in the Staatsblad, entering into force immediately thereafter, as provided in Articles 137 through 139 of the . This immediate effect underscores the paramount status of constitutional changes once formalized. A distinctive feature of the Dutch system is its monist approach to , where ratified treaties gain direct applicability and precedence over conflicting domestic legislation upon entry into force, pursuant to Articles 93 and 94 of the . Courts routinely invoke treaties as self-executing norms, prioritizing them over national statutes without requiring implementing legislation. This is particularly evident in the integration of European Union law; EU treaties and regulations have direct effect in the post-ratification, enabling individuals to rely on them before domestic courts, as established in the landmark 1963 Van Gend en Loos case before the Court of Justice of the . Historically, the 1983 revision of the exemplifies this process. Adopted by the required two-thirds majorities in both houses of the States General following the standard amendment procedure, the revised text received and was published in the Staatsblad on 17 February 1983, entering into force immediately and introducing expanded provisions while modernizing the document's structure.

In the , the entry into force of international follows a dualist approach, where occurs through the exercise of the Crown's powers after parliamentary under the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010 (CRaG). Once ratified, a treaty enters into force for the UK according to its specific terms, such as upon deposit of the instrument of with the relevant or after an agreed waiting period, and it is subsequently published in the as a Command Paper to notify the public and ensure transparency. This process underscores the UK's tradition, emphasizing in implementing treaty obligations through domestic legislation where necessary. For domestic legislation, entry into force is primarily triggered by , granted by the monarch on the advice of ministers, after a bill has passed both Houses of . Acts may specify a commencement date within their text, commence via subordinate legislation such as a commencement order or proclamation by the monarch, or, in the absence of such provisions, take effect at midnight at the end of the day of . A notable example is the , which received on 9 November 1998 but entered into force on 2 October 2000 through a commencement order, allowing time for preparation and alignment with the . Devolution introduces regional variations in entry into force for matters within the competence of the , , and Cymru (Welsh Parliament), reflecting the UK's asymmetrical federal structure established by the , , and Government of Wales Act 2006. In Scotland, Acts of the receive and commence according to provisions similar to Westminster legislation, often via Scottish statutory instruments for phased implementation of devolved policies like or . Northern Ireland follows a comparable process, with the Secretary of State granting to Assembly Acts, and commencement orders handling devolved areas such as justice or agriculture, ensuring alignment with the Agreement's power-sharing framework. These mechanisms allow for tailored timelines that respect regional autonomy while maintaining overall UK coherence. The UK's unwritten constitution relies on conventions and statutes rather than a single codified document, shaping entry into force through established practices like the Ponsonby Rule (now codified in CRaG), which requires treaties to be laid before Parliament for 21 sitting days before ratification. For instance, the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 exemplified phased entry, with core provisions commencing on "exit day" (31 January 2020) and further elements, including retained EU law, becoming effective on "IP completion day" (31 December 2020) via multiple commencement regulations to manage the transition from EU membership. Post-Brexit, adjustments to entry practices have focused on integrating retained into the domestic framework, with such entering into force as on 31 December 2020, subject to subsequent reforms under the Retained EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Act 2023, which ended the supremacy of and enabled easier domestic amendment from 1 January 2024. This evolution maintains the dualist separation between international obligations and internal , adapting principles to the post-EU landscape.

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  46. https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/passage-bill/lords/lrds-royal-assent/
  47. https://erskinemay.parliament.uk/section/4982/commencement
  48. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2000/1851/made
  49. https://www.parliament.scot/about/how-parliament-works/parliament-rules-and-guidance/guidance-on-public-bills/annex-b-structure-and-drafting-of-bills
  50. https://www.niassembly.gov.uk/assembly-business/legislation/bills-explained/
  51. https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/parliamentary-scrutiny-of-treaties/
  52. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2020/1622/made
  53. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2023/28/notes/division/3/index.htm
  54. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/retained-eu-law-dashboard
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