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British Camp
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British Camp (left)
The northern extension of British Camp

British Camp is an Iron Age hill fort located at the top of Herefordshire Beacon in the Malvern Hills. The hill fort is protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument and is owned and maintained by Malvern Hills Conservators. The fort is thought to have been first constructed in the 2nd century BC. A Norman castle was built on the site.

The extensive earthworks remain clearly visible today and determine the shape of the hill.

The height of the summit of British Camp is 1,109 feet (338 m).[1]

Situation

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British Camp is composed of extensive earthworks that have been compared to a giant wedding cake. Midsummer Hill fort is a mile south of British Camp. There are a number of generally round hut platforms on British Camp, which may well suggest a permanent occupation. However it is unusual to have two major hill forts within such a short distance.

3D view of the digital terrain model

The diarist John Evelyn (1620–1706) remarked that the view from the hill was "one of the godliest vistas in England".[2]

British Camp

[edit]
The central earthworks

The ditch and counterscarp bank around the entire site covers three hills, although those to north and south are little more than spurs. With a perimeter of 6,800 feet (2,100 m), the defences enclose an area of around 44 acres (18 ha).[3] The first earthworks were around the base of the central hill otherwise known as the citadel. At least four pre-historic phases of building have so far been identified. Original gates appear to have existed to east, west and north-east.

The Roman Era

[edit]

There is no evidence about whether the coming of the Romans ended the prehistoric use of British Camp, but folklore states that the ancient British chieftain Caratacus made his last stand here. This is unlikely, according to the description of the Roman historian Tacitus who implies a site closer to the river Severn. Excavation at Midsummer Hill fort, Bredon Hill and Croft Ambrey all show evidence of violent destruction around 48 AD. This may suggest that British Camp was abandoned or destroyed around the same time.

The Castle

[edit]

Medieval castles were sometimes built within earlier sites, reusing the earthworks of Iron Age hill forts for instance as was the case at British Camp.[4] A ringwork and bailey castle, known as Colwall Castle as well as The Herefordshire Beacon, was built within the Iron Age hill fort,[5] probably in the ten years immediately before 1066. Quite possibly the builder was Earl Harold Godwinson, the future King Harold II of England. Earl Harold is recorded as building another fortress in the county at Longtown Castle. The castle would appear to have been refortified during The Anarchy of the reign of King Stephen. Before 1148 the fortress was held by Waleran de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Worcester. The castle appears to have changed hands again in 1151 and 1153 when attacked by royalists. At this time it was defended by the men of Earl Waleran's brother, Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester. The castle was finally destroyed by King Henry II in 1155 and mentioned in passing by William Langland before 1386.

The Shire Ditch

[edit]
Along the Shire Ditch to Broad Down

The Shire Ditch, or Red Earl's Dyke, runs north and south of British Camp along the ridge of the hills. It was created in 1287 by Gilbert de Clare, the Earl of Gloucester, following a boundary dispute with Thomas de Cantilupe, the Bishop of Hereford.[6] Recent research has shown that the Shire Ditch might actually be much older. Indeed, there is some evidence that it may have started life as a prehistoric trackway running from Midsummer Hill fort to the Worcestershire Beacon, the highest hill in the range over three miles to the north of the Camp.

Folklore

[edit]

A popular legend tells that Caratacus, a British tribal chieftain, fought his last battle against the Romans at British Camp and goes on to say that after his capture he was taken to Rome where he was given a villa and a pension by Emperor Claudius.

However, the description by Tacitus, the Roman historian makes this unlikely:

Caratacus resorted to the ultimate hazard, adopting a place for battle so that entry, exit, everything would be unfavourable to us and for the better to his own men, with steep mountains all around, and, wherever a gentle access was possible, he strewed rocks in front in the manner of a rampart. And in front too there flowed a stream with an unsure ford, and companies of armed men had taken up position along the defences.[7]

Although the River Severn is visible from British Camp, it is about 8 kilometres (5 miles) from it, so this battle must have taken place elsewhere. A number of locations have been suggested, including sites near Brampton Bryan, an important Roman site, or Church Stretton which also has an Iron Age fort on Caer Caradoc Hill.[8]

References

[edit]

Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

British Camp

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
British Camp is an hill fort located on the summit of Herefordshire Beacon in the , straddling the border between and in . This contour hillfort, one of the most prominent prehistoric monuments in the region, features multi-tiered ramparts and deep ditches enclosing an internal area of approximately 14.7 hectares, with construction beginning in the late around 800 BC and expanding through the early and middle . Protected as a , it offers panoramic views across the surrounding valleys and is renowned for its layered earthworks, often likened to a , which provided defensive capabilities for ancient communities. The fort's development occurred in multiple phases: an initial smaller enclosure of about 3 hectares with a slight bank and deep ditch in the late /early , followed by a major expansion in the middle that incorporated four overlapping entrances and up to 118 visible hut platforms, suggesting use for gatherings, rituals, or seasonal occupation rather than . Excavations, including those conducted in 1879 by F.G. Hilton Price, have revealed evidence of prehistoric activity but no signs of extensive domestic structures or burials, supporting interpretations of it as a ceremonial or defensive site rather than a year-round village. Later modifications include a medieval ringwork on the summit from the 11th to 14th centuries and the Shire Ditch, traditionally dated to around 1287 but possibly earlier, a linear earthwork marking the county boundary. Folklore associates British Camp with the last stand of the British chieftain Caractacus against Roman forces in the 1st century AD, though historical evidence points to a different location, such as , rendering this legend apocryphal. Today, the site attracts visitors for hiking and interpretation, managed by the Conservators, with ongoing conservation efforts addressing erosion and vegetation overgrowth to preserve its archaeological integrity.

Location and Setting

Geographical Position

British Camp occupies the summit of Herefordshire Beacon within the , a designated National Landscape that extends across the border between and in west-central . The hillfort straddles this county boundary, with its earthworks encompassing parts of both administrative areas. Positioned at coordinates approximately 52°03′28″N 2°21′06″W, the site reaches an elevation of 338 metres (1,109 feet) above , forming a prominent feature on the ridge. It is situated roughly 6.4 kilometres (4 miles) east of the market town of , 3.2 kilometres (2 miles) south of , and provides vistas over the River Severn valley to the east, approximately 8 kilometres (5 miles) distant. As a Scheduled designated on 10 August 1923, British Camp receives legal protection under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979, ensuring preservation of its archaeological integrity. The site is owned and managed by the Malvern Hills Trust, the working name of the Malvern Hills Conservators, which oversees its maintenance within the broader National Landscape, a status emphasizing its natural and cultural significance. Geologically, British Camp is underlain by igneous and metamorphic rocks dating to around 680 million years ago, forming part of the ancient volcanic ridge that defines the . These resistant rocks, part of the Malvern Complex, have shaped the site's elevated topography. The encloses an internal area of approximately 14.7 hectares (36 acres), with earthworks spanning up to 870 metres in length and 270 metres in width.

Topography and Views

British Camp occupies a prominent position on the high ridge of Herefordshire Beacon within the , rising steeply from the surrounding lowlands of the to an elevation of approximately 338 meters (1,109 feet). This contour exemplifies one of the most spectacular examples in Britain, with its tiered earthworks creating a distinctive, multi-layered profile often likened to a giant wedding cake due to the concentric ramparts and ditches that follow the natural contours of the hill. The steep slopes enhance the site's dramatic visual impact, integrating the ancient fortifications seamlessly into the undulating landscape of the National Landscape. Access to British Camp is primarily via well-maintained footpaths starting from nearby car parks, such as the British Camp car park along the A449, which serves as a convenient base for visitors. These paths offer a moderate ascent through open and occasional , making the site a popular starting point for circular walks that incorporate nearby summits like Hangman's Hill and Millennium Hill, providing varied terrain for hikers of different abilities. The route from the car park to the summit typically involves a steady climb of approximately 100 meters, rewarding visitors with an immersive experience of the hills' rugged contours. From the summit, British Camp offers expansive 360-degree panoramic views, extending up to 50-100 miles on clear days and encompassing vistas of up to 12 counties. To the west, the Black Mountains in are prominent, while southeastward views reach the , with the Welsh borders visible along the horizon; these sweeping prospects have long been celebrated, as noted by diarist in 1654, who described the outlook as "one of the godliest vistas in ." A stone plaque at the site commemorates this historical praise, underscoring the enduring appeal of the location's visual splendor. The site lies in close proximity to the related Iron Age hillfort on Midsummer Hill, approximately 1 mile to the south, forming part of a chain of prehistoric features along the Malvern ridge. As part of a conserved landscape managed by the Malvern Hills Trust, the working name of the Malvern Hills Conservators, British Camp contributes to a biodiversity-rich environment supporting diverse flora such as wild roses and autumn crocus, alongside fauna including Small Heath butterflies, Meadow Pipits, and Green Woodpeckers in the open grasslands. This ecological role is enhanced by its integration into regional hiking networks, including the Worcestershire Way, a long-distance footpath that traverses the area and promotes appreciation of the hills' natural heritage.

The Iron Age Hillfort

Structure and Earthworks

British Camp is a classic example of a , constructed during the Middle around the 2nd century BC, with its earthworks following the natural contours of the Herefordshire Beacon at approximately 338 meters above . The overall design features multiple concentric ramparts and ditches that enclose an area of approximately 14.7 hectares (36 acres), with a perimeter measuring roughly 6,800 feet (2,100 meters), spanning the summits of Herefordshire Beacon and the adjacent Millennium Hill. This multi-vallate layout, developed in phases, provided a fortified that integrated the hill's steep slopes for enhanced defense. The key earthworks consist of up to seven tiers of banks and ditches in some sections, though primarily bivallate in its main phase, with the inner rampart reaching heights of up to 30 feet (9 ) above the ditch bottoms. The ditches, quarried from the underlying rock, vary in depth from 3 to 5 and width up to 21 , while banks on the outer edges further strengthened the perimeter against approach. Original entrances are located at the east, west, and northeast, designed with inturned approaches to impede attackers, though archaeological surveys indicate four principal access points in the expanded phase. Internally, the includes numerous platforms, with at least 118 identified as bases for roundhouses, suggesting occupation by a of several hundred, possibly seasonal. These terraces, typically 4.5 to 12 in diameter, cluster along the eastern side of the central ridge, alongside quarry hollows from rampart construction; a possible central may have housed elite structures, though details remain speculative pending further evidence. Evidence of multiple occupation phases underscores the site's evolution, with later expansions incorporating these features. The multi-vallate system was primarily defensive, designed to protect against tribal raids in a contested , by layering obstacles that exploited the hill's natural slopes for added and difficulty of . This architecture, common in western Britain during the , emphasized visibility and territorial control over the Severn and Leadon valleys below.

Archaeological Evidence

Archaeological investigations at British Camp have been limited due to the site's protected status, with early excavations focused on small-scale trenching and subsequent work emphasizing non-invasive surveys. In 1879, F. G. Hilton Price conducted the primary excavations, digging seven trenches primarily within the central ringwork and adjacent ramparts; these revealed fragments of pottery (red and black wares), , pebbles likely used as sling ammunition, and structural evidence including a small foundation with signs of burning. No large-scale digs followed, as the hillfort was scheduled as an in 1934, restricting further invasive work; a detailed topographic survey by the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of in 1932 provided baseline mapping of the earthworks. Analysis of the earthworks and limited excavation data has identified four construction phases spanning the Late Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age. Phase 1, potentially dating to the late Bronze Age or early around 800 BC, enclosed approximately 3 hectares on the summit with a slight bank and deep ditch atop an artificially steepened slope. Phase 2, in the middle (2nd century BC), expanded the enclosure to its main form with multiple concentric ramparts and ditches, the innermost being the most substantial, incorporating four entrances. Phases 3 and 4, during the late (1st century BC to early 1st century AD), added internal subdivisions, terraces, and an eastern annexe, with gates and palisades repositioned for enhanced defense. Evidence of occupation derives primarily from surface surveys and the sparse excavation finds, pointing to settlement activity rather than purely defensive use. Over 118 round hut platforms—terraced depressions up to 10 meters in diameter—have been mapped within the main enclosure, suggesting structured habitation spaces for roundhouses; these, combined with Price's recovery of pottery shards, indicate sustained use, possibly seasonal or transhumant, involving and along nearby trade routes. The platforms' distribution implies a of several hundred, though no direct evidence like animal bones or iron tools from contexts has been reported, likely due to the limited scope of digs. The shows signs of gradual decline and abandonment by the early AD, coinciding with the Roman conquest, but lacks indicators of violent destruction such as mass weapon deposits or trauma on remains. Post-Iron Age reuse is minimal, with only slight Romano-British activity noted in surveys. Modern non-invasive techniques have enhanced understanding without disturbing the site. The 1999–2000 (AONB) Archaeological Survey by employed ground-based EDM mapping, , and walkover to delineate the full extent of ramparts, ditches, and platforms, confirming the phased development. Subsequent analysis, integrated into regional heritage assessments, has revealed subtle topographic features like quarry hollows and annexe outlines, underscoring the hillfort's 14.7-hectare footprint; its designation continues to preclude large-scale excavations, prioritizing preservation.

Historical Developments

Roman Period

No Roman artifacts or structures have been discovered at British Camp, indicating that the was likely abandoned or saw only minimal use by around 48 AD. Archaeological surveys and limited excavations at the site have yielded no evidence of Roman or occupation, consistent with the broader pattern of hillfort disuse following the invasion. The absence of such finds suggests the fort's primary role ended with the late phases, prior to sustained Roman control in the region. In the regional context, the Roman invasion targeted the Dobunni tribe, who occupied the area, between approximately 43 and 48 AD as part of the campaigns led by governors and . Excavations at nearby hillforts reveal destruction layers dated to around 48 AD, including fire damage at Midsummer Hill, which housed an estimated 1,500 inhabitants until its apparent sacking. Similar evidence of violent abandonment appears at , where earthworks were refortified shortly before the conquest, and at Croft Ambrey, occupied until AD 48, potentially linking these events to Roman efforts to subdue resistance in the Dobunni territory. The Roman historian describes ' final stand against Ostorius in near the River Severn, in a of wooded hills and a strong river position, but provides no indication of the site as a fortified location. No archaeological evidence corroborates a Roman or major battle at British Camp itself, distinguishing it from the confirmed destruction at adjacent sites. While some speculation suggests British Camp may have served a secondary role as a signaling station or watchpost during Roman consolidation of the area, this remains unproven due to the lack of supporting or structural modifications. The Dobunni's generally receptive stance toward Roman administration further implies limited ongoing conflict at such peripheral hilltop sites after the initial conquest phase.

Medieval Castle

The medieval castle at British Camp, also known as Colwall Castle or the Herefordshire Beacon, is a ringwork and bailey structure constructed within the confines of the on the summit of Herefordshire Beacon. Likely dating to the late 11th or early 12th century following the , the castle incorporated and reused the inner ramparts of the preexisting for its defensive earthworks. Some historians propose an earlier origin, potentially pre-1066. During the civil conflicts of (1135–1153), the site was refortified to serve as a key defensive outpost, providing a commanding strategic overlook across the and the below. The fortress was held by Waleran de Beaumont, 1st , a prominent Anglo-Norman noble and supporter of King Stephen, until 1148, after which control shifted amid the ongoing power struggles. Its elevated position enhanced surveillance and control over the volatile border region between . The castle met its end in 1155 when King Henry II, consolidating power after his accession, demolished it as part of a broader campaign to slight rebel-held fortifications along the following a brief uprising led by supporters of the previous regime. By the late , the site had fallen into ruin, with its earthworks serving as a remnant of medieval military architecture. No stone structures survive today; visible features include a central ringwork with a motte-like internal approximately 20 meters in , surrounded by a rock-cut ditch and outer bailey traces, all integrated into the hillfort's topography. These earthworks, surveyed in detail during the Malvern Hills Archaeological Survey, underscore the site's adaptation from prehistoric defenses to Norman-era without extensive masonry additions.

The Shire Ditch

The Shire Ditch, also known as Red Earl's Dyke, is a medieval linear earthwork constructed in 1287 by , the 8th Earl of and , to resolve a boundary dispute with Thomas de Cantilupe, the Bishop of . The conflict arose over hunting rights and land ownership along the ridge, where de Clare's estates in bordered the bishop's lands in , leading to encroachments that allowed deer to cross freely and escalate tensions. Its primary purpose was to demarcate the county border between and , preventing further disputes by physically separating the territories and controlling animal movement across the boundary. The ditch was enforced through a , following that favored the bishop's claims, ensuring de Clare's compliance in fortifying the line to maintain peace in the region. This construction occurred amid broader medieval efforts to stabilize borders after , though it post-dates the earlier Norman ringwork on British Camp. The earthwork follows a north-south orientation along the crest of the ridge, extending approximately 2 miles southward from British Camp toward Wynds Point, with a total documented length of about 5.5 km across the hills. It consists of a low bank, typically 3-6 feet high, flanked by ditches on both sides, designed for visibility and functionality rather than heavy defense. Archaeological suggests possible prehistoric origins, potentially as a Late trackway or land division that was later enhanced in the medieval period. In relation to British Camp, the Shire Ditch passes adjacent to the hillfort's eastern side, incorporating elements of its existing counterscarp bank from the defenses without integrating into the core structure. This positioning left the hillfort's summit, including the later medieval ringwork, within , reinforcing the boundary's role in defining administrative divisions while respecting the site's prehistoric layout.

Folklore and Legacy

Caratacus Legend

The legend surrounding British Camp associates the with the final stand of the British chieftain against Roman forces around 50 AD. According to the tale, , leader of the tribe and a key resistor to Roman invasion, rallied his warriors at the fortified summit of Herefordshire Beacon. Overwhelmed in a fierce battle, he was captured along with his family and followers, then transported to . There, his dignified speech before Emperor so impressed the assembly that he was spared execution and granted a along with a pension, allowing him to live out his days in relative freedom. This likely originated in local traditions but gained prominence through 19th-century writings, which romanticized the site's imposing multivallate earthworks—multiple concentric ramparts and ditches spanning over 1,000 meters—as the ideal setting for a dramatic last defense. The hillfort's strategic position atop the , offering panoramic views and a sense of ancient defiance, fueled interpretations by early historians and writers who linked it to ' resistance without direct evidence. Such accounts portrayed the camp as a symbol of British valor against imperial conquest, aligning with emerging nationalistic sentiments. However, the legend conflicts with historical records, particularly the account in ' Annals, which describes ' defeat occurring in the territory of the and tribes near the River Severn, far from the . details a battle at a fortified hill position defended by spearmen and swordsmen, but places it in what is now mid-Wales or , with proposed sites including near or Brampton Bryan—locations closer to the Severn and matching the tribal territories involved. No archaeological findings at British Camp, such as Roman weapons, coins, or military debris from the mid-1st century AD, support a major engagement there, reinforcing the tale's status as rather than . The legend has enduring cultural resonance, inspiring regional storytelling and Victorian-era that celebrated pre-Roman British heritage amid industrial change. It appears in 19th- and early 20th-century guidebooks promoting the Malverns as a site of heroic antiquity, and influenced artistic works, such as Edward Elgar's Caractacus (Op. 35, 1898), composed partly in homage to the hillfort's evocative landscape and the chieftain's fabled defiance. This narrative continues to shape local identity, though recognized today as blending with imagination.

Modern Significance

British Camp, located on Herefordshire Beacon within the Malvern Hills, has been maintained by the Malvern Hills Trust—formerly the Malvern Hills Conservators—since its establishment by Act of Parliament in 1884 to safeguard the area's commons from development and ensure public access. The Trust continues active conservation through measures such as grazing sheep on the site's slopes to preserve archaeological features and control vegetation overgrowth, as implemented in 2021. Ongoing erosion control efforts include path repairs and resurfacing, with specific works at British Camp in 2019 to stabilize scars from visitor foot traffic and water damage, further repairs in 2022 to address walker-induced erosion, and resurfacing of the car park access path in May 2025. A comprehensive Conservation Management Plan for the site, published in 2013, guides these initiatives to protect the Iron Age earthworks while allowing sustainable use. As a prominent , British Camp draws significant visitors as part of the , which see approximately 1.25 million visitors annually, contributing to the region's tourism economy valued at nearly £200 million. It serves as a key stop on popular walking routes across the hills, with facilities like the British Camp car park providing easy access and interpretive signage highlighting its history. While no dedicated hillfort festivals are hosted at the site, it features in broader events such as guided heritage walks organized by the Trust, enhancing recreational appeal for hikers and families. The site's cultural legacy endures through its portrayal in media, including a 2004 BBC feature exploring the story of British Camp as an hillfort dominating Beacon. It has inspired artistic and literary works, with the —exemplified by British Camp—motivating poets and authors like and modern responses to its dramatic landscape. Educationally, British Camp supports studies in schools by offering an accessible example of prehistoric fortifications for field trips and curriculum-linked visits focused on ancient British settlement patterns. Preservation challenges at British Camp center on balancing high visitor access with the protection of fragile earthworks, exacerbated by footpath erosion from increased usage. Recent non-invasive technologies, such as mapping, have enhanced understanding of the site's structure without excavation, revealing detailed contours of the as documented in archaeological visualizations. Climate change impacts, including intensified rainfall contributing to erosion, are addressed through like the Trust's vegetation control and in 2024 to bolster bat habitats and stabilize slopes post-ash dieback removal. Biodiversity at British Camp benefits from conservation grazing and habitat management, supporting grassland species amid the surrounding Malvern Hills ecosystem, which includes rare orchids like the common spotted and southern marsh varieties found on nearby commons. Accessibility improvements include disabled toilets and parking at the British Camp car park, facilitating easier visits for wheelchair users and those with mobility needs, though the hillfort's upper paths remain challenging due to steep terrain.

References

  1. https://hillforts.arch.ox.ac.uk/records/EN0005.html
  2. https://malvernmuseum.co.uk/prehistoric-malvern/
  3. https://www.bbc.co.uk/herefordandworcester/content/articles/2004/07/21/malvern_british_camp_feature.shtml
  4. https://www.historyhit.com/locations/british-camp/
  5. https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1001792
  6. https://peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=53710
  7. https://www.hillforts.co.uk/british-camp-hillfort
  8. https://www.malvernhills-nl.org.uk/
  9. https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Welsh_Borderland_-_Malvern_Hills
  10. https://webapps.bgs.ac.uk/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?pub=MVC
  11. https://www.countrylife.co.uk/out-and-about/fiona-reynolds-in-bright-sunshine-and-strong-wind-its-exhilarating-to-look-down-on-the-roofs-of-great-malvern-225400
  12. https://www.baldhiker.com/malvern-hills-spine-walk-loop/
  13. https://www.alltrails.com/poi/england/worcestershire/malvern/british-camp
  14. https://hiiker.app/trails/england/worcestershire/herefordshire-beacon-from-british-camp-car-park
  15. https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2010/may/06/britains-best-views-worcester-malvern
  16. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2021/03/10-british-iron-age-hill-forts/118900
  17. https://www.malvernhills.org.uk/hills-and-commons/wildlife/
  18. https://www.malvernhills.org.uk/home/
  19. https://www.malvernhills-nl.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/2025-30-MHNL-Management-Plan-FINAL-INC-Chair-Foreword.pdf
  20. https://www.explorethepast.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Archaeology-of-the-Malvern-Hills.pdf
  21. https://www.malvernhills.org.uk/media/1123/herefordshire-beacon-cmp-final-version-low-res.pdf
  22. https://historicengland.org.uk/research/results/reports/124-2000
  23. https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=4747
  24. https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/tribes/dobunni/
  25. https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/midsummer-hill-camp/
  26. https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/croft_ambrey/
  27. https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=5111
  28. https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/classics/warwickclassicsnetwork/romancoventry/resources/interactions/rebellion/caratacus/revolt/
  29. https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/roman-conquest-and-occupation-of-britain/initial-claudian-invasion-and-conquest-43-60-ad/roman-military-campaigns-caratacus-ap-cunobelin-catuvellaunum/
  30. http://www.castles99.ukprint.com/Essays/England/Midlands/herebeac.html
  31. https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/iha-hillforts/heag206-hillforts/
  32. https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/malvern-hills-ancient-landscape/
  33. https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/3299944
  34. https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/Malvern/
  35. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/home.html
  36. https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/composerscountryside/pip/8pos8/
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