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Burrowing parrot
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Burrowing parrot
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Family: Psittacidae
Genus: Cyanoliseus
Species:
C. patagonus
Binomial name
Cyanoliseus patagonus
(Vieillot, 1818)
yellow is nesting area, orange is area of seasonal food migrations

The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus), also known as the burrowing parakeet or the Patagonian conure, is a species of parrot native to Argentina and Chile. It belongs to the monotypic genus Cyanoliseus, with four subspecies that are currently recognized.

The burrowing parrot is unmistakable with a distinctive white eye ring, white breast marking, olive green body colour, and brightly coloured underparts. Named for their nesting habits, burrowing parrots excavate elaborate burrows in cliff faces and ravines in order to rear their chicks. They inhabit dry, open country up to 2000 m in elevation.[2] Once abundant across Argentina and Chile, burrowing parrot populations have been in decline due to exploitation and persecution.[2]

Taxonomy, phylogeny and systematics

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Burrowing parrot by Edward Lear

The burrowing parrot was first described in 1818 by Louis Pierre Vieillot as Psittacus patagonus.[3] The genus was later renamed Cyanoliseus by Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1854.[4]

The burrowing parrot is the only member of the genus Cyanoliseus, making it monotypic. Together with other genera of long-tailed New World parrots, Cyanoliseus is a part of the Tribe Arini, which in turn is a part of the subfamily Arinae, or Neotropical parrots, in the family of true parrots, Psittacidae. The closest relative of the burrowing parrot is thought to be the Nanday parakeet.[5][6]

There are four recognized subspecies, however the subspecies C. p. conlara is considered doubtfully distinct:[7]

  • C. p. patagonus (Vieillot) is the nominate subspecies found in central to southeast Argentina, with some migrants reaching southern Uruguay[2]
  • C. p. andinus (Dabbene and Lillo) is found in northwest Argentina, from Salta to San Juan.[2] Plumage is duller than the nominate C. p. patagonus, with much fainter markings.[8] This population is estimated to be approximately 2000 individuals.[9]
  • C. p. conlara (Nores and Yzurieta) can be found in San Luis, between the ranges of C. p. patagonus and C. p. andinus, and is visually similar to C. p. patagonus except for a darker breast, suggesting that C. p. conlara may be a hybrid instead of a distinct subspecies[7][9]
  • C. p. bloxami (Olson), formerly C. p. byroni, also known as the Greater Patagonian Conure,[10] is the Chilean sub-population. Formerly occurring from Atacama to Valdivia, this subspecies is now restricted to isolated populations in central Chile in the O'Higgins, Maule and Atacama regions.[2] Unlike the nominate subspecies, the white breast markings of this subspecies are prominent and extend across the whole breast, and the yellow underparts and red abdomen are much brighter.[8] It is larger in size than C. p. patagonus at 315-390g.[10] Populations are currently estimated at 5000-6000 individuals.[9]

Another subspecies, C. p. whitleyi (Kinnear), was described but has since been determined to be an aviary hybrid between a burrowing parrot and a species from the genus Aratinga or possibly Primolius.[2][8]

A study on mitochondrial DNA in burrowing parrots suggests that the species originated in Chile, the Argentinian populations arising during the Late Pleistocene from "a single migration event across the Andes, which gave rise to all extant Argentinean mitochondrial lineages".[9] The Andes represent a strong geographical barrier, thus isolating the Chilean population, which were found to be genetically and phenotypically distinct from the Argentinian populations.[9] This study found no support for C. p. conlara as a subspecies, and instead suggests a hybrid zone between the C. p. patagonus and C. p. andinus ranges where C. p. conlara represents the hybrid phenotype.

Description

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Adults measure 39–52 cm in length, with a wingspan of 23–25 cm and a long, graduated tail that can range from 21 to 26 cm. Burrowing parrots are slightly sexually dimorphic, with males being slightly larger and weighing approximately 253-340 g, while females weigh 227-304 g,[2][8] making it the largest member of the group of New World parakeet species commonly known as conures.[11]

The burrowing parrot is a distinctive parrot; it has a bare, white eye ring and post-ocular patch, its head and upper back are olive-brown, and its throat and breast are grey-brown with a whitish pectoral marking, which is variable and rarely extends across the whole breast.[2][8] The lower thighs and the center of the abdomen are orange-red, and it is thought that the extent and hue of the red plumage indicates the quality of the individual as a breeding partner and parent.[12] The lower back, upper thighs, rump, vent and flanks are yellow, and the wing coverts olive green.[2] The tail is olive green with a blue caste when viewed from above and brown from below.[8] The burrowing parrot has a grey bill and yellow-white iris with pink legs.[8] Immature birds look like adults but with a horn coloured upper mandible patch and a pale grey iris.[2][8]

While both sexes look visually similar to the human eye, the burrowing parrot is sexually dichromatic. Males tend to have significantly redder and larger abdominal red patches,[12] and both sexes look different under UV light, with males have brighter green feathers and females having brighter blue feathers.[13]

Distribution and habitat

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The burrowing parrot can be found in much of Argentina, and there are isolated populations in central Chile.[2] In the winter, birds in central and southern Argentina may migrate north as far as southern Uruguay, making them austral migrants, while Chilean birds migrate vertically down slope to avoid colder altitudes.[8] Movements in the populations of northwestern Argentina are also known to occur according to food availability.[8]

The burrowing parrot prefers dry, open country, particularly in the vicinity of water courses, up to 2000 m in elevation.[2] Habitats include montane grassy shrubland, Patagonian steppes, arid lowland, woodland savanna, and the plains of the Gran Chaco.[2][8] They may also inhabit farmland and the edges of urban areas.[2]

Behaviour and ecology

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Diet

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The diet of the burrowing parrot comprises seeds, berries, fruits, and possibly vegetable matter,[8] and they can be seen feeding on the ground or in trees and shrubs.[2] Their diet varies seasonally, with fruit consumption peaking during Argentina's summer (December–February), where one study found that fruit makes up 2% of their crop contents in November–December, 74% in January, 25% in February, 35%,in March and 8% in April.[8] Specifically, burrowing parrots have been observed feeding on the fruit from various species such as the red crowberry (Empetrum rubrum), Chilean palo verde (Geoffroea decorticans), Lycium salsum, pepper trees (Schinus sp.), Prosopis sp., Discaria sp., as well as cacti.[2] In the winter, the burrowing parrot feeds predominantly on seeds from cultivated crops and wild plants such as thistles, as well as the Patagonian oak (Nothofagus obliqua) and the Carboncillo (Cordia decandra) in the Chilean foothills.[2]

Nesting burrows

Reproduction

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Best known for its nesting habits, the burrowing parrot excavates industrious burrows in limestone or sandstone cliff faces, often in ravines. These burrows can be as much as 3 m deep into a cliff-face, connecting with other tunnels to create a labyrinth, ending in a nesting chamber.[8] Breeding pairs will reuse burrows from previous years but may enlarge them.[14] They nest in large colonies, some of the largest ever recorded for parrots, which is thought to reduce predation.[14] The parrots tend to select larger, taller ravines, allowing for larger colonies and higher burrows and resulting in higher breeding success.[14]

In the absence of acceptable ravines or cliffs to use as nesting sites, burrowing parrots will use anthropogenic substrates such as quarries, wells and pits.[15] Rarely, they have been known to nest in tree cavities.[16]

Studies have shown that burrowing parrots are both socially and genetically monogamous.[17] The breeding season begins in September, and eggs are laid up to December, with two up to five eggs laid per clutch.[2] The incubation period is 24–25 days, where the female is the sole incubator while the male provides for her.[18] Eggs hatch asynchronously, and mortality is higher for fourth and fifth chicks in a clutch.[18] Both parents care for the chicks. Chicks begin to fledge in late December until February, approximately eight weeks after hatching,[8] and the fledglings depend on their parents for up to four months.[18]

Thermoregulation

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In order to cope with an unpredictable climate, burrowing parrots increase their body mass and decrease their basal metabolic rate (BMR) in the winter in order to conserve energy, insulate against cold ambient temperatures and to survive reductions in food availability, in concurrence with other birds found in the southern hemisphere.[19]

Status and relationship to humans

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Burrowing parrot in captivity

The burrowing parrot currently has an overall conservation status of least concern according to the IUCN Red List, but populations are currently declining, due to exploitation for the wildlife trade and persecution as a crop pest.[20] Their nesting habits make them particularly vulnerable to human disturbances and habitat degradation.[2] It is nonetheless currently listed under Appendix II of CITES, allowing for international trade,[2] but the endangered C. p. bloxami Chilean subspecies is on the Chilean national vertebrate red list.[9]

The burrowing parrot was officially named as a crop pest in Argentina in 1984, leading to increased persecution.[2] Their status as a crop pest has excluded them protection under Argentina's ban on wildlife trade,[2] however the province of Río Negro has deemed population reductions sufficient and banned hunting and trade of the burrowing parrot as of 2004.[9] Studies have shown that the effects of crop predation by burrowing parrots is economically insignificant.[21] Additionally, birds of the Chilean subspecies (C. p. bloxami) have been hunted for feast-day in Chile.[2]

The Mapuche people of the province of Neuquén in the Patagonian Andes celebrate the annual fledging of burrowing parrots with a festival.[22]

Aviculture

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The burrowing parrot, commonly called the Patagonian conure in aviculture, is a popular companion parrot. It is known for being playful, gentle and affectionate with humans, even cuddly when tame - it can also learn to talk and mimic sounds from its environment. As a large parakeet, it requires plenty of living space and the opportunity to fly on a regular basis in order to thrive.[23] The maximum verified lifespan for this species in captivity is 19.5 years, however plausible claims of burrowing parrots living up to 34.1 years have also been reported.[24]

The subspecies typically found in aviculture is the nominate ssp., Cyanoliseus patagonus patagonus - also known as the lesser Patagonian conure. Tens of thousands of burrowing parakeets were previously removed from the wild and exported for the pet trade, but most birds available for purchase as pets are nowadays captive-bred.[25]

References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Burrowing parrot

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus), also known as the Patagonian conure or burrowing parakeet, is a medium-sized of in the Psittacidae, endemic to the arid and semi-arid open grasslands, shrublands, and dry woodlands of central and southern , with extensions into adjacent and marginally southeastern . It is characterized by its highly , forming large flocks that on the ground and in vegetation for a diet primarily consisting of seeds, fruits, berries, and vegetable matter. The species is notable for its unique nesting habits, excavating extensive burrows in or cliffs, often in dense colonies that can support thousands of pairs, which provide and protection. Although classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, burrowing parrot populations have experienced declines in some regions due to habitat degradation, persecution as agricultural pests, and extensive illegal capture for the pet trade, with over 122,000 wild individuals reported in international trade since its listing on Appendix II in 1981.

Taxonomy and Systematics

Etymology and Classification

The common name burrowing parrot (also rendered as burrowing parakeet) originates from the species' specialized nesting strategy, whereby pairs and colonies excavate extensive tunnels into vertical cliff faces, riverbanks, or earthen escarpments to rear their young, a trait uncommon among parrots. An alternative vernacular name, Patagonian conure, highlights its core range across the arid and semi-arid landscapes of in southern . The binomial Cyanoliseus patagonus stems from the species' initial scientific description by French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1818, originally classified as Psittacus patagonus. The genus Cyanoliseus was formalized in 1854 by , who reassigned the species to this newly erected taxon, establishing it as a monotypic with no other included members. The specific epithet patagonus directly references , the ecoregion encompassing much of the bird's native habitat in and . Taxonomically, C. patagonus is situated in the order Psittaciformes, encompassing all parrots and cockatoos, and the family , the true parrots of the and tropics. Within , it forms a distinct lineage among the long-tailed Neotropical parrots (tribe Arini), distinguished by molecular and morphological analyses that affirm its isolated generic status. Four are currently recognized, varying primarily in intensity and geographic isolation: C. p. patagonus (nominate, central ), C. p. andinus (Andean slopes), C. p. conlara (west-central ), and C. p. bloxami (southern populations).

Phylogeny and Subspecies

The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) occupies a monotypic within the family, subfamily Arinae, and tribe Arini, as established by molecular phylogenetic analyses of Neotropical parrots using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences. These studies position it among core Arini taxa, with evolutionary affinities to other South American conure-like genera, reflecting a shared Neotropical radiation estimated to have occurred in the . Genus-level monotypy underscores its distinct morphological and behavioral adaptations, such as burrowing nest excavation, which differentiate it from congeners in related clades. Population-level phylogeny, inferred from mitochondrial DNA (e.g., cytochrome b and control region), indicates an ancestral range in central Chile, with a single eastward dispersal across the approximately 120,000 years ago during the Pleistocene, leading to divergence between western and eastern lineages. The Andean cordillera subsequently imposed a strong barrier to , fostering genetic structure and a stable hybrid zone in northern where limited admixture occurs. This vicariant pattern aligns with phylogeographic patterns in other Andean avifauna, driven by Pleistocene climate oscillations rather than recent anthropogenic factors. Four subspecies are currently recognized, primarily distinguished by geographic isolation, subtle size variations, and minor differences, though taxonomic boundaries remain under scrutiny due to ongoing in contact zones:
SubspeciesRangeNotes
C. p. patagonusCentral to southeast Nominate form; smaller size, olive-brown with yellow lower back.
C. p. andinusNorthwest Adapted to Andean foothills; limited morphological data.
C. p. conlaraWest-central Intermediate form in transitional habitats.
C. p. bloxamiLargest subspecies; represents the ancestral western lineage.

Physical Characteristics

Morphology and Plumage

The Burrowing Parrot possesses a robust, stocky build typical of Arini parrots, with a strong, curved bill adapted for cracking hard seeds and excavating nesting burrows in cliffs. Its wings are pointed and moderately long, facilitating agile flight in flocks, while the tail is long and graduated, aiding in maneuverability. Zygodactyl feet with sharp claws assist in climbing and digging. Plumage is predominantly dull olive-green with gray-brown tones on the head, neck, back, breast, and mantle, providing camouflage in arid scrublands. Wing coverts exhibit a subtle glossy bronze sheen enhancing the olive coloration. A distinctive bare white patch adorns the cheeks, contrasting with the surrounding feathers, and the sides of the upper breast show creamy to buffy-white markings. Red feathers, particularly on the abdominal region and undertail coverts, are ornamental and produced by psittacofulvins, unique non-carotenoid pigments biosynthesized by parrots, signaling individual quality. Sexual dichromatism is cryptic to the but detectable via spectrometry; males display brighter reflectance in and visible spectra across several patches, potentially aiding , while females appear duller overall. Juveniles resemble adults but with softer, less defined edges and reduced pigmentation, undergoing a single annual prebasic molt. Bare parts include a pale gray to horn-colored bill, dark brown irises, and grayish legs.

Size, Weight, and Sexual Dimorphism

The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) measures 39–52 cm in total length, including the , with wingspans of 23–25 cm. Body mass typically ranges from 240–310 g in adults, averaging around 270–280 g. Sexual dimorphism is slight, with no conspicuous differences in plumage coloration visible to the , though spectrometric analysis reveals hidden dichromatism in feather reflectance between sexes. Males exhibit structural size advantages of approximately 5% over females, particularly in wing length and tarsus length, while bill length shows no significant difference. Body mass does not differ markedly between sexes after controlling for structural size. This dimorphism aligns with patterns in other Arini parrots, where males are marginally larger, potentially linked to roles in territory defense and provisioning.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) is endemic to southern , with its primary distribution spanning central and southern from and provinces in the north to northeastern Santa Cruz province in the south, and extending westward into from the to the . Populations occur in dry, open habitats up to 2,000 meters , though they are now patchily distributed due to historical declines. The species comprises four subspecies with distinct ranges: C. p. andinus in northwestern (e.g., , Jujuy, and Tucumán provinces); C. p. conlara in west-central (San Luis and provinces); C. p. patagonus across central to southeastern from Mendoza and La Pampa southward to Chubut and Río Negro provinces, with post-breeding movements northward into northern and occasional vagrants to ; and C. p. byrsii in central . While once more continuous, current distributions reflect fragmentation from habitat loss and , with core populations concentrated in arid steppes and river valleys.

Habitat Preferences and Adaptations

The Burrowing Parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) primarily inhabits arid and semi-arid open landscapes, including steppes, scrublands, and flat grasslands characterized by dry climates, strong winds, and low rainfall, ranging up to elevations of 2,000 m. These preferences extend across southern and , where the species favors areas with accessible ravines or cliffs suitable for nesting, often along river valleys or in geomorphological features like alluvial terraces. Substrates for nesting typically consist of mixed with small stones, which facilitate excavation while providing tunnel stability, with a preference for larger and taller ravines that support extensive colonies. Nesting sites are selected at multiple scales, prioritizing intrinsic ravine features such as size, height, and south-facing orientation for microclimatic stability over broader landscape factors like distance to , though proximity to water bodies correlates with higher nest densities. This selection reflects adaptations to treeless environments, as the species is one of few parrots capable of primary cavity excavation, burrowing into soft cliffs to create nests that protect against predators and harsh . Colony formation in expansive leverages the dilution effect to minimize predation risk, enabling high-density breeding in otherwise resource-limited arid zones. Physiologically, the Burrowing Parrot exhibits seasonal thermoregulatory adjustments suited to Patagonian extremes, including higher body mass in winter (mean 260.3 ± 6.3 g, 7.7% greater than summer) for insulation and broad thermoneutral zones year-round to conserve energy in unpredictable conditions. Core body temperature remains stable across seasons with consistent circadian rhythms, while elevated mass-specific metabolic rates in summer support activity amid heat. The species demonstrates behavioral flexibility by increasingly utilizing anthropogenic sites, such as urban quarries and rural cliffs in southwestern , adapting to .

Behavior and Ecology

Social Structure and Daily Activities

The burrowing parrot maintains a highly gregarious , forming large flocks numbering in the hundreds to thousands of individuals year-round, except during incubation when pairs may isolate temporarily. These flocks enhance predator detection through collective vigilance and enable coordinated movements for and roosting, with birds exhibiting noisy vocalizations and synchronized flight patterns during group activities. Pair bonds are typically long-term and monogamous, both socially and genetically, providing stability within the fluid flock dynamics. Daily routines are diurnal, centered on expeditions where flocks depart roosts to exploit ground-level resources such as , fruits, and berries in open arid landscapes. groups, documented up to 263 individuals in transit from breeding areas, display ground-feeding behaviors, often in agricultural fields or scrublands, with heightened sensitivity to environmental threats prompting sentinel-like scanning by peripheral members. Midday may involve resting or in shaded areas, while late afternoon sees flocks returning noisily to communal roosts in cliff burrows, trees, or artificial structures like wires, where they aggregate for overnight protection.

Diet and Foraging Behavior

The diet of the burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) consists primarily of from the ground in open arid habitats, supplemented by fruits, berries, and pulp from plant pods, with vegetable matter occasionally consumed. Fruits from woody species such as alba, P. nigra, and Geoffroea decorticans become significant during the breeding season (September–February), comprising up to 74% of crop contents in and supporting consistent breeding and molt due to their reliable availability compared to seasonal grass . Burrowing parrots predominate on soft from unripe pods (wasting 4.1–11.1 viable per pod) and exclusively consume the pulp encasing hard from ripe pods of keystone species, thereby facilitating through pod transport and discard. Foraging involves dispersal in small flocks from nesting colonies to patches of natural or modified , where birds feed both on the ground and in low-standing ; traveling flocks may reach 263 individuals, but feeding groups remain smaller and exhibit high vigilance, with sentinels alerting to threats during perching, feeding, or drinking. In agricultural areas of northeastern , they preferentially target post-harvest stover from , , and sunflower fields (41% of observations), spilled grains on cultivated pastures (12%), and road margins (10%), largely ignoring growing crops and causing minimal damage (0.1–0.4% of sunflower yield, confined to field borders). Individuals occasionally visit recently burned fields to ingest ground substances, potentially for digestive aid. Nestlings receive 3–6 feedings daily by adults provisioning from these sites.

Reproduction and Nesting

The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) is a colonial nester, excavating in soft sandstones, limestones, earthen cliffs, or ravines known as barrancas. Burrows typically measure an average depth of 1.5 meters and terminate in an incubation chamber where eggs are laid directly on bare ground without nesting material. Each burrow is occupied by a single , and colonies can be extensive, with the largest known at El Cóndor in northeastern , , supporting over 35,000 active nests, representing approximately 71% of the global breeding population. Pairs arrive at colonies 1-2 months prior to egg-laying and gradually depart post-fledging. Breeding occurs seasonally, with one laid per year consisting of 2-5 eggs, and clutch sizes reported as 3.2 ± 1.3 eggs (range 1-5) in monitored nests. Incubation lasts approximately 24 days, primarily performed by the female during the day while the male incubates at night and provides food to the female. The species exhibits social and genetic in its breeding system. Hatching success can reach 81.3%, though nest success varies annually, with apparent success rates of 80.4% in some seasons and 51.2% in others due to factors like predation or abandonment. Chicks hatch and are fed by both parents, with fledging occurring after several weeks; detailed chick growth studies indicate variable productivity influenced by environmental conditions. Breeding pairs defend nests aggressively, showing risk-taking behaviors such as approaching threats closely. In recent years, populations have adapted to anthropogenic nesting sites, including urban structures, enabling breeding in modified habitats.

Physiological Adaptations

The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) demonstrates robust thermoregulatory capabilities suited to the arid, seasonally variable climate of , where temperatures can range from frosts and snow in winter to highs exceeding 30°C in summer. Individuals maintain a in core body temperature, fluctuating between a minimum of 38.5°C before dawn and a maximum of 40.5°C in the afternoon, enabling precise daily adjustments to environmental demands. This rhythm supports during rest and activity peaks, reflecting physiological flexibility in endothermic regulation. Seasonally, body mass increases significantly in winter compared to summer, providing enhanced insulation and fat reserves to withstand cold stress, with birds exhibiting broad thermoneutral zones that minimize metabolic costs across both seasons. These adaptations, combined with behavioral nesting in burrows that buffer extreme temperatures, allow the to inhabit elevations up to 2,000 m where heavy and frosts occur regularly. Physiological stress responses, such as variations in leukocyte profiles during droughts, further indicate resilience to environmental extremes, though these are modulated by individual condition rather than fixed traits. The parrot's strong mandibular musculature and bill morphology facilitate excavation of nesting cavities in soft cliffs, a primary cavity-excavating unique among parrots, supported by efficient oxygen transport in blood parameters linked to demands. Hematological traits, including elevated heterophils during stress, correlate with body condition and support sustained burrowing efforts in nutrient-poor soils. These features underscore causal links between and , enabling long-distance flights of up to 66 km at average speeds of 37 km/h for in sparse habitats.

Conservation and Population Dynamics

Current Status and Population Estimates

The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) is classified as Least Concern on the , indicating that it does not meet criteria for higher threat categories despite ongoing pressures. This assessment reflects a large global population size exceeding thresholds for Vulnerable status (fewer than 10,000 mature individuals), but the species exhibits a decreasing trend due to loss, illegal trapping, and agricultural conflicts. Global population estimates place the number of mature individuals at approximately 95,000, derived from extrapolations of density data across core ranges in , , and smaller populations in . Regional variations show concentrations , with Argentine subpopulations including around 8,000 pairs in southern areas and smaller groups elsewhere, while Chilean efforts have increased local numbers from 217 individuals in the to nearly 4,500 by 2021 through targeted conservation. Local studies in urbanized Argentine sites report breeding pair estimates of 1,363–1,612, contributing to site-specific totals of about 5,448 individuals, though these represent subsets of the broader population. Population declines are uneven, with heavier impacts in northern ranges from and as crop pests, contrasted by stability or growth in protected Patagonian cliffs where nesting colonies persist. Monitoring challenges, including variable survey methods and vast arid habitats, contribute to estimate uncertainties, but aerial and ground counts consistently support the overall large but declining status.

Major Threats

The burrowing parrot faces ongoing population declines primarily from loss and degradation, driven by conversion of native grasslands and arid shrublands to intensive and by , which erodes soil stability in river valleys and cliffs critical for burrowing nests. , , agricultural expansion has fragmented key breeding habitats, reducing available nesting sites and foraging areas for seeds and fruits. Illegal capture for the international trade represents a severe historical and persistent threat, with 122,914 wild-caught individuals reported in since the ' listing on Appendix II in 1981, despite regulatory efforts. This exploitation targets adults and fledglings from large colonies, exacerbating declines in localized populations, particularly in northern and southern . Persecution as an agricultural pest contributes to direct mortality, as farmers destroy nests and shoot birds to protect crops like corn and sunflowers, with reports of raids in response to perceived damage. In , where the is nationally listed as threatened, such conflicts have led to the intentional of breeding cliffs. Additional pressures include unregulated in breeding areas, where off-road vehicles and foot traffic disturb and cause chick mortality by collapsing burrows, as observed in coastal Patagonian sites. Localized threats in encompass predation, wildfires, and domestic pet attacks on nests, compounded by climate-driven changes in arid habitats. Unusual mass die-offs, such as the 2021 event in Río Negro Province, , affecting thousands at like El Cóndor, highlight vulnerabilities to unidentified factors including potential outbreaks or toxins, underscoring the need for monitoring.

Conservation Measures and Outcomes

The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) benefits from regulation under Appendix II, listed in 1981, which has documented 122,914 wild-caught individuals exported since then, enabling monitored quotas to curb for the pet trade. In , national protections enacted around 1986 prohibited and , coupled with enforcement and safeguards along river basins, resulted in a recovery for the C. p. bloxami from approximately 217 individuals in the mid-1980s to nearly 4,500 by 2021, though it remains classified as endangered domestically due to persistent vulnerabilities. In , where the species is categorized as threatened, measures include targeted colony protections by the , such as advocating for legal safeguards of key nesting cliffs to mitigate agricultural habitat loss, alongside long-term monitoring programs funded by the World Parrot Trust since 2003 to assess distribution and ecological needs. Private initiatives, like those from Tompkins Conservation and Rewilding Argentina, focus on restoration and , promoting indirect benefits through broader ecosystem recovery. Outcomes vary regionally: successful recoveries in demonstrate the efficacy of strict enforcement against direct persecution, with breeding productivity observed in monitored urban-adjacent sites contributing to local stability. In , adaptation to anthropogenic nesting substrates, such as quarries and urban cliffs, has buffered some populations against habitat degradation, yielding density estimates of up to 1.5 pairs per hectare in surveyed southwestern areas as of 2023, though overall declines persist in unprotected zones due to incomplete threat mitigation. Mass mortality events, such as those reported in 2021 from unknown causes, underscore gaps in comprehensive monitoring, with calls for expanded veterinary and genetic studies to enhance resilience. Globally, the ' IUCN Least Concern status reflects these patchy successes, but subspecies-level threats highlight the need for sustained, cross-border efforts.

Human Interactions

Aviculture and Captive Breeding

Burrowing parrots, commonly referred to as Patagonian in , have been maintained in captivity since the mid-20th century and were historically among the most frequently traded species in . These birds exhibit hardiness in temperate climates, thriving in outdoor without the need for enclosed shelters once acclimatized, provided they are protected from . In pet settings, they demand substantial daily interaction due to their highly social disposition, forming strong pair bonds with mates or human caregivers, though their vocalizations can be intense and persistent. Captive breeding of burrowing parrots typically occurs in spacious aviaries, where one or two pairs can successfully reproduce in enclosures as small as 4.5 meters long, though larger setups facilitate colonial nesting akin to their behavior. Pairs generally reach around three years of age, though isolated reports indicate breeding as early as . Monogamous bonding is common, necessitating careful pair selection to avoid ; breeding requires provision of deep nest boxes simulating natural burrows to encourage egg-laying, with clutches mirroring patterns of 2–5 eggs. Successful demands meticulous attention to diet, enriched with proteins and calcium during egg production and chick-rearing phases, alongside monitoring for pair compatibility to minimize risks observed in some species.

Agricultural Conflicts and Pest Status

The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) is frequently regarded by farmers in as an agricultural pest due to perceived crop raiding, particularly on seeds and grains in expanded cultivation areas of . This perception has led to official classification as a pest , resulting in exclusion from national wildlife trade bans and ongoing persecution through shooting and habitat disturbance, especially in regions like Río Negro and provinces where agricultural expansion overlaps with foraging ranges. Empirical assessments, however, indicate minimal actual damage to crops. A 2016 study in northeastern quantified foraging impacts across sunflower, corn, and fields, recording negligible seed loss attributable to burrowing parrots—less than 0.1% of total yield in monitored plots—and concluded that no targeted pest is warranted. Observations confirmed that while flocks visit fields, their diet primarily consists of native seeds, fruits, and , with crop consumption opportunistic and not economically significant, challenging farmer claims of substantial losses in areas like Carmen de Patagones. These discrepancies highlight broader human-wildlife conflicts driven by agricultural intensification into former habitats, where anecdotal reports amplify perceived threats despite limited verifiable data. persists, contributing to local population declines, though conservation advocates argue for evidence-based approaches over reactive , given the species' overall vulnerability from habitat loss and .

Urban Adaptation and Anthropogenic Sites

The burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) exhibits notable flexibility in nesting habitat selection, enabling breeding populations to persist in urban and peri-urban landscapes through the exploitation of human-modified sites. These include abandoned quarries, roadside ravines, and water wells, which mimic the soft-soil cliffs preferred in natural settings but provide accessible cavities for burrowing. Such adaptations have facilitated urban colonization, particularly in northern Argentinian , where 57% of identified nesting sites and 60–80% of breeding pairs occur in urban environments, with the remainder in rural areas. Nest density varies significantly across anthropogenic substrates, with mean densities highest in roadside ravines (exceeding those in quarries), and urban roadsides supporting greater concentrations than rural counterparts. Colonies in these sites display facultative coloniality, ranging from solitary pairs to aggregations of up to 300 breeding pairs, allowing the species to maintain reproductive output amid . In the southwest , urbanized habitats host substantial populations, with monitoring revealing stable breeding activity in modified ravines and cliffs proximate to settlements. This urban adaptation underscores the species' behavioral plasticity, as it shifts from pristine arid ecosystems to human-altered terrains without evident declines in site occupancy, though long-term viability depends on the persistence of these artificial substrates. Observations confirm breeding success in such locales, contributing to broader patterns where over 40% of South American species, including C. patagonus, reproduce within city limits.

References

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