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Cape starling
Cape starling
Cape starling
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Cape starling
Cape starling in Etosha National Park, Namibia
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Sturnidae
Genus: Lamprotornis
Species:
L. nitens
Binomial name
Lamprotornis nitens
(Linnaeus, 1766)
  L. n. phoenicopterus
  L. n. culminator [1][2]
Synonyms

Turdus nitens Linnaeus, 1766

Cape Starling in Namibia
Cape Starling in Namibia
Cape starling in Namibia
L. nitens phoenicopterus in the Kruger National Park, South Africa
L. nitens phoenicopterus in the Kruger National Park, South Africa

The Cape starling (Lamprotornis nitens), also known as red-shouldered glossy-starling or Cape glossy starling, is a species of starling in the family Sturnidae. It is found in Southern Africa, where it lives in woodlands, bushveld and in suburbs.[4]

Subspecies

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Two subspecies are recognised,[2] but not by all authors.[5] L. n. culminator is said to be larger, with greener wing and tail plumage. Its secondary remiges are also glossy on both vanes, i.e. not matt black on the inner vanes as in L. n. phoenicopterus.[2]

  • L. n. phoenicopterus — widespread in Southern Africa
  • L. n. culminator — Eastern Cape, South Africa

Taxonomy

[edit]

In 1760, the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the Cape starling in his Ornithologie based on a specimen collected in Angola. He used the French name Le merle verd d'Angola and the Latin Merula Viridis Angolensis.[6] Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.[7] When in 1766, the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson.[7] One of these was the Cape starling. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Turdus nitens and cited Brisson's work.[8] The specific name nitens is Latin for "shining" or "glittering".[9] This species is now placed in the genus Lamprotornis that was introduced by the Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1820.[10]

Description

[edit]
Cape starling in the Kruger National Park, South Africa — neither its ear coverts or flank feathers contrast strongly with the remainder of the plumage, cf. blue-eared starlings.[11]
A juvenile (at left with matt plumage) and an adult Cape starling. The adult has yet to complete its post-breeding molt. Eyes of juveniles start changing from grey to yellow at two months. By six months they have the appearance of adults.[11]

The Cape starling has an adult length of about 25 cm (10 in) and weight of about 100 grams (3.5 oz). The plumage of an adult bird is a fairly uniform bright, glossy colour. The head is blue with darker ear coverts and the upper parts of the body are greenish-blue. It has a lengthy warbling song which may include an imitation of sounds it hears in its environment.[12]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The Cape starling is found in the southern part of Africa. Its range encompasses the extreme south of Gabon, the west and south of Angola, the extreme south of Zambia, throughout Zimbabwe, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho and South Africa. It is a vagrant to the Republic of the Congo but does not breed there. In the other countries in its range it is a resident (non-migratory) species and its total extent of occurrence is about 3,000,000 square kilometres (1,200,000 sq mi).[13] The Cape starling is found where trees in which it can roost and nest are found. It is not a bird of dense forest or of pasture and is not associated with any particular plant type. It does occur in open woodland, plantations, savannah, bushveld, rough grassland, parks and gardens and is quite numerous in the central Kalahari where isolated trees occur.[1]

Behaviour

[edit]
Consuming ripe fruit of a shepherd's tree during early summer, Kgalagadi
Eating a cricket in the Kube Yini Game Reserve, South Africa

The Cape starling is a gregarious bird and forms large flocks in the non-breeding season. It usually feeds on the ground often foraging alongside other species of starlings such as the pied starling, the common starling, the greater blue-eared starling, the lesser blue-eared starling, the wattled starling and Burchell's starling.[1] It is habituated to humans and its diet includes fruit, insects and nectar. It sometimes feeds on ectoparasites that it picks off the backs of animals and it sometimes visits bird tables for scraps.[14]

Breeding

[edit]

Breeding mainly takes place between October and February but may continue into April in Namibia. It nests in crevices such as holes in trees and out-competes other birds seeking to use these holes. It is a host to the greater honeyguide, a brood parasite that lays its eggs in other birds' nests.[1] In an observed nest in a thorn tree at the edge of the Kalahari, the chicks were fed predominantly on grasshoppers, locusts, ants and beetles, and were also given fruit, insect larvae and other small invertebrates.[14]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cape starling

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Cape starling (Lamprotornis nitens), also known as the red-shouldered glossy starling or Cape glossy starling, is a medium-sized bird in the starling Sturnidae, endemic to , measuring approximately 25 cm in length and weighing 75–105 g, with distinctive iridescent blue-green on the head and upperparts, greenish flanks and belly, a black bill and legs, and an orange-yellow iris in adults. Juveniles are duller with a grey iris, maturing after about six months. This species is widespread across countries including , , , , , , , , , , and , with an extent of occurrence spanning over 4.35 million km², though it avoids the southwestern Cape and arid western interior regions. It inhabits a variety of dry savanna woodlands, subtropical/tropical dry grasslands and shrublands, riverine vegetation, forest edges, plantations, rural gardens, and urban parks, from up to 1,800 m elevation, adapting well to drier habitats and human-altered environments compared to other glossy starlings. Cape starlings are omnivorous, feeding primarily on fruits such as figs (Ficus species), insects like wasps and ants, nectar, and occasionally carrion, often foraging in pairs or small groups of up to 20 individuals on the ground, in trees, or alongside large mammals like ungulates. They are resident birds, non-migratory, and exhibit cooperative breeding behaviors, with monogamous pairs nesting from September to March in tree cavities or old woodpecker holes, laying clutches of about three eggs that incubate for 12–14 days and fledge after around 20 days. The population is common and stable, with estimates exceeding 32,000 individuals in , over 16,000 in , and more than 40,000 in southern , leading to its IUCN Red List classification as Least Concern with no major threats identified. Vocalizations include a flight call described as "turrreaau" and an alarm call "karrr," contributing to their social and scavenging behaviors near human settlements.

Taxonomy

Etymology and classification

The Cape starling was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766 under the binomial name Turdus nitens in the 12th edition of Systema Naturae. The specific epithet nitens derives from the Latin word meaning "shining" or "glittering," a reference to the bird's iridescent plumage as noted in Linnaeus's brief description emphasizing the glossy blue back. The type locality was designated as Angola. Subsequently, the species was reclassified into the Lamprotornis, which was introduced by Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1820 to encompass African glossy starlings characterized by their metallic plumage. The name combines Greek words lampros (brilliant or shiny) and ornis (), reflecting the group's distinctive sheen. Lamprotornis nitens is now firmly placed within the Sturnidae (starlings) and the order Passeriformes (perching birds), distinguishing it from the thrush Turdus where it was initially housed. Phylogenetically, L. nitens belongs to a of southern African glossy s within Sturnidae, showing close affinities to congeners such as the greater blue-eared glossy starling (Lamprotornis chalybaeus) and the sharp-tailed (L. acuticaudus), based on shared morphological traits like tail structure and ecological adaptations to woodlands. These relationships highlight an evolutionary origin in , with northward expansions in related species. Historical taxonomic revisions for L. nitens and allied species involved separating African glossy s from broader and thrush genera, primarily on the basis of iridescent plumage patterns and distinct vocal repertoires that differ from temperate Eurasian s. Such changes, beginning in the early , refined the classification to emphasize Afrotropical radiations within Sturnidae.

Subspecies

The Cape starling (Lamprotornis nitens) is divided into two subspecies in some taxonomic treatments, though geographical variation is considered clinal by others, leading to its classification as monotypic in recent authorities. The widespread subspecies L. n. phoenicopterus (sometimes considered synonymous with or encompassing the nominate L. n. nitens from the type locality in ), occurs across , ranging from eastward through , , , and northeastern to much of the interior of . It features the species' typical iridescent -green plumage, with a pronounced blue sheen on the head and upperparts. In contrast, L. n. culminator is restricted to coastal forests of the Province in , from around Port Elizabeth northward to the region. This subspecies is larger overall, with a longer bill and tail, greener upperparts, and reduced blue sheen compared to the nominate form. These subspecies are distinguished primarily by differences in size and plumage coloration, as documented in ornithological studies of southern African starlings. Intergradation occurs where their ranges approach, supporting arguments for treating variation as continuous rather than discrete.

Description

Physical appearance

The Cape starling (Lamprotornis nitens) is distinguished by its glossy, plumage, which produces a metallic sheen that shifts from to or purple hues depending on the angle of incident light due to the structured arrangement of melanosomes in the barbules. The head and feature a glossy coloration, often darker on the ear-coverts, while the upperparts exhibit greenish- tones with strong iridescence; the underparts transition from purple- on the upper breast to greener gloss on the lower breast, belly, and undertail-coverts. The wings display - feathers accented by dark spots on some median and greater coverts and a bronzy-purple epaulet, complemented by a glossy - tail. Adults have bright yellow to orange-yellow eyes, a black bill, and black legs, creating a striking contrast against the iridescent body. Sexual dimorphism is minimal, with males and females showing nearly identical , though some clinal variation exists across , such as greener tones in populations from to northeastern . Juveniles display duller lacking the adult's iridescent sheen, characterized by a brownish tint and matt black underparts, with eyes initially grey, shifting to dull yellow by three months and acquiring the adult orange-yellow color after six months as they molt into full glossy adult appearance by their first breeding season.

Size and vocalizations

The Cape starling is a medium-sized , measuring about 25 cm in total length from bill to tail tip. Its wingspan typically ranges from 36 to 40 cm, contributing to its agile flight in open habitats. Adults weigh between 75 and 105 g, with males averaging slightly heavier than females, though sexual size dimorphism is minimal overall. The possesses a diverse vocal , dominated by a sustained warbling that can last up to 20 seconds and features varied, melodious notes. This often incorporates of other bird or environmental sounds, such as flows, demonstrating the bird's vocal versatility. Males deliver these songs year-round, particularly in choruses at dawn and dusk near roosts or midday by the nest site during female incubation, serving key roles in defense and mate attraction. Alarm calls consist of harsh, sharp "karrr" notes, emitted to signal potential threats. Flight calls are rolling "turrreaau" utterances, often accompanied by a loud swishing noise from the wings during group movements. These vocalizations facilitate coordination in social flocks, though their primary acoustic traits remain consistent across populations.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Cape starling (Lamprotornis nitens) is native to , with its range extending from the extreme southern and the mouth of the in western southward through western and southern , southwestern , , , , and into (excluding the southern and southwestern Cape regions and the dry western interior), as well as the western lowlands of , , and southern . It has been recorded as a vagrant in the southern . The species' extent of occurrence spans approximately 4,350,000 km², encompassing a broad swath of and regions across these countries. Core populations are concentrated in , , and , where the bird is widespread and common in suitable areas, including protected regions such as in northeastern . The Cape starling is primarily resident throughout its range, with no of long-distance migrations; ringed individuals have been documented remaining on the same for up to four years. Its historical range appears stable, with recent assessments indicating no major contractions and a population trend that is neither increasing nor decreasing significantly.

Habitat preferences

The Cape starling inhabits a variety of open and semi-open environments across , favoring woodlands, savannas, bushveld, and riverine vegetation, particularly in areas with scattered taller along watercourses in arid regions. It also thrives in edges and human-modified landscapes such as plantations, orchards, parks, and suburban gardens, where it readily exploits available resources. The avoids dense rainforests and open grasslands or pastures, which lack the tree cover essential for its activities. This bird occurs from to elevations of up to 1,800 m, showing a preference for habitats containing fruiting trees like figs ( spp.) and aloes ( spp.), as well as other species such as , Rhus, , Scutia myrtina, and Azima tetracantha. These preferences ensure access to nectar sources, including from caffra, , Protea subvestita, and spp., which support its in dry savannas and subtropical shrublands. In terms of microhabitat use, the Cape starling nests in natural cavities such as tree holes—often those excavated by woodpeckers or barbets—and riverbank holes, while also adapting to artificial sites including fence posts, hollow metal pipes, nestboxes elevated over 2 m, and even postboxes. Roosting takes place in small groups within trees, contributing to its success in both natural and anthropogenic settings.

Behaviour and ecology

Diet and foraging

The Cape starling (Lamprotornis nitens) exhibits an omnivorous diet, primarily consisting of fruits and insects, though it also consumes nectar, small invertebrates, and occasional other items. Fruits form a major component, including those from species such as Ficus, Lycium, Rhus, Olea, Scutia myrtina, Azima tetracantha, Diospyros pubescens, and Atriplex bacifera. Insects consumed include wasps, ants (e.g., Plagiolepis custodiens), grasshoppers, termites, beetles, caterpillars, and flies, while nectar is sourced from flowers of Erythrina caffra, Boscia albitrunca, Protea subvestita, Grevillea, and various Aloe species. Additional foods encompass ectoparasites like ticks (Acarina), millipedes (Diplopoda), mammalian carrion, and human-provided items such as bread and bone meal. Foraging occurs in a variety of settings, including trees, bushes, and the ground, often in groups of up to 20 individuals that may join mixed-species flocks. On the ground, Cape starlings glean and fruits, while in they probe flowers for and pick ectoparasites or hawk flying . They frequently associate with grazing ungulates such as , , , and to capture disturbed flies or remove ticks from the animals' backs. As partial frugivores, Cape starlings play an ecological role in , particularly for fig (Ficus spp.), by consuming fruits and depositing seeds away from parent plants, contributing to dynamics in their habitats. Their insectivory helps control populations of pests like , beetles, and ticks, benefiting both ecosystems and associated mammals.

Social structure

The Cape starling (Lamprotornis nitens) is a highly gregarious , typically forming flocks of up to 20 individuals during , though these can expand to much larger assemblages outside the breeding season. In non-breeding periods, birds aggregate in sizable groups that facilitate communal activities such as feeding and movement, reflecting their opportunistic social strategy common among sturnids. During the breeding season, social units contract to monogamous pairs or small family groups, often incorporating retained offspring that assist in various group functions. Flock dynamics exhibit cooperative elements, particularly through the presence of —likely prior-year —that contribute to group maintenance, with some individuals remaining in family units for up to three years post-fledging. These participate in shared responsibilities, including nest-related tasks and potential defense, underscoring a structured where experienced pairs guide group activities like expeditions. Roosting occurs in small clusters within trees, providing a secure communal site that reinforces bonds among flock members. Interspecies associations are prominent, with Cape s frequently foraging alongside grazing ungulates such as cattle (Bos taurus) and blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), where they exploit disturbed insects and ectoparasites flushed by the mammals' movement. They also join mixed-species flocks with other insectivorous birds, including conspecifics and related s, enhancing foraging efficiency through collective vigilance. Such interactions extend to roosting sites shared with other species, promoting broader avian networks in shared habitats. Within flocks, communication relies on vocal and visual signals to coordinate activities and respond to threats. Sustained warbling songs, often incorporating of other species, are delivered year-round but intensify at roosts to maintain group cohesion. Alarm calls, described as harsh "kaarr" notes, alert the flock to predators, while a rolling "turrrreeu" serves as a flight contact call; these are supplemented by loud swishing wing sounds during undulating group flights, aiding visual . Cooperative defense manifests through collective alarm responses, though specific displays are not well-documented for this species.

Reproduction

Breeding season and sites

The breeding season of the Cape starling (Lamprotornis nitens) primarily occurs from to February or March in , with records extending into April in , coinciding with the when rainfall triggers increased and abundance that supports . Cape starlings are monogamous, with pairs forming through elaborate displays that include vocalizations, singing, and aerial maneuvers to attract mates. Nest sites are selected in cavities, either natural holes or those excavated by woodpeckers or barbets, though pairs occasionally use artificial structures such as fence posts, metal pipes, riverbank holes, or even rooftops and postboxes. These sites are typically chosen in woodlands or riverine vegetation for protection and proximity to foraging areas, with nests lined with materials like dry grass, horse or , feathers, and occasionally shed snakeskins to provide insulation and . Breeding pairs defend territories around nest sites, though specific sizes vary with density. Cape starlings are vulnerable to , serving as occasional hosts to the (Indicator indicator), with at least one documented case of a parasitic egg in a nest, and to the (Clamator glandarius) in regions like .

Eggs, incubation, and parental care

The Cape starling lays clutches of 3 eggs, which are pale greenish-blue and speckled with light red. The female incubates the eggs alone for 12–14 days until . The male contributes to nest defense and provisioning during this period. Upon , the altricial chicks are naked and helpless, relying entirely on for warmth and food. Both parents, often assisted by helpers in groups, feed the nestlings a diet primarily consisting of such as beetles and locusts, supplemented with . Both parents feed the nestlings, with the female focusing on brooding the young. The nestling period lasts approximately 20–23 days, after which the chicks but remain dependent on adults for 2–4 additional weeks. Fledging success can be lower due to by species like the (Clamator glandarius) and (Indicator indicator), which lay their eggs in Cape starling nests. Pairs may raise multiple broods in a single season if conditions allow, contributing to their reproductive output.

Conservation

Population status

The Cape starling (Lamprotornis nitens) is classified as Least Concern on the , with the most recent assessment conducted in 2018 and the population trend remaining stable as of 2025. This status is attributed to its extremely large geographic range of approximately 4,350,000 km² across and its high adaptability to diverse habitats, including urban and agricultural areas. Although the global population size has not been precisely quantified, it is considered large and does not approach the thresholds for vulnerability under IUCN criteria (fewer than 10,000 mature individuals), with estimates in protected areas such as exceeding 32,000 individuals and similar abundances reported in . No significant declines have been observed, and monitoring efforts by the Southern African Bird Atlas Project (SABAP) and confirm stable reporting rates across its range, including increased presence in suburban environments due to the species' tolerance of human-modified landscapes. The species' population stability is supported by its system, where helpers (often retained offspring) assist in raising multiple broods annually, and its dietary flexibility, allowing it to exploit a wide variety of , fruits, and human-associated food sources. sizes typically range from 2 to 5 eggs, with incubation lasting 12–14 days and both parents contributing to feeding, enabling effective even in variable conditions.

Threats and protection

The Cape starling experiences few substantial threats across its range, with populations remaining stable in the absence of evidence for declines. Minor anthropogenic pressures include associated with agricultural expansion in , which can disrupt woodland and habitats favored by the . Competition with may occur for cavity nesting sites in altered landscapes, though direct impacts on the Cape starling are limited. Occasional applications in agricultural areas pose a potential by reducing availability of prey, a key component of its diet, but specific effects have not been quantified for this . A localized natural pressure is by the (Indicator indicator), documented in at least one instance where a egg was found in a Cape starling nest; nests may also be parasitized by the (Clamator glandarius) in regions like . The Cape starling benefits from conservation within protected areas across its range, including in , where the population exceeds 32,000 individuals, and , supporting over 16,000 birds. Although classified as Least Concern by the IUCN and not listed under South Africa's Threatened or Protected Species () regulations due to its stable status, the species gains indirect protection through broader national laws and habitat safeguards in reserves. Research gaps persist, including limited data on the health of urban populations and the prevalence of ; ongoing monitoring is recommended to detect any emerging localized pressures.

References

  1. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/capgls1/cur/introduction
  2. https://ebird.org/species/capgls1
  3. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/cape-starling-lamprotornis-nitens
  4. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=57BBB7F161268D8F
  5. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/137337#page/298/mode/1up
  6. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233296672_Evolutionary_trends_in_southern_African_glossy_starlings_Lamprotornis
  7. https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/updates/subspecies-2/
  8. http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/764.pdf
  9. https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id27597/
  10. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=8DBA28F0
  11. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.746254/full
  12. https://birdfact.com/birds/cape-starling
  13. https://app.birda.org/species-guide/29488/Cape_Starling
  14. https://animalia.bio/cape-starling
  15. https://www.riverbanks.org/subsite/pact/sturnids.pdf
  16. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.capgls1.01
  17. https://wildlifevagabond.com/wildlife/birds/passerines/old-world-flycatchers-and-allies/starlings/cape-starling-mobile/
  18. https://app.mybirdbuddy.com/birds/cape-starling/0366fcf9-21cd-4654-9a21-c33298c81a1e
  19. https://www.biodiversityexplorer.info/birds/sturnidae/lamprotornis_nitens.htm
  20. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22710675/132089574
  21. https://www.facebook.com/groups/354680744597443/posts/7540298969368882/
  22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328576621_Common_Starling_Sturnus_vulgaris_expansion_in_South_Africa
  23. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/sites/default/files/European-Starlings-WDM-Technical-Series.pdf
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