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This article is about the bird family. For other uses, see Starling (disambiguation).

Starling
Hildebrandt's starling
(Lamprotornis hildebrandti)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Superfamily: Muscicapoidea
Family: Sturnidae
Rafinesque, 1815
Genera

Nearly 30, see text.

Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine (perching) birds known for the often dark, glossy iridescent sheen of their plumage; their complex vocalizations including mimicking; and their distinctive, often elaborate swarming behavior, known as murmuration.

All members of the family Sturnidae, commonly called sturnids, are known collectively as starlings. The Sturnidae are named for the genus Sturnus, which in turn comes from the Latin word for starling, sturnus. The family contains 128 species which are divided into 36 genera. Many Asian species, particularly the larger ones, are called mynas, and many African species are known as glossy starlings because of their iridescent plumage. Starlings are native to Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as northern Australia and the islands of the tropical Pacific. Several European and Asian species have been introduced to these areas, as well as North America, Hawaii, and New Zealand, where they generally compete for habitats with native birds and are considered to be invasive species. The starling species familiar to most people in Europe and North America is the common starling, and throughout much of Asia and the Pacific.

Having strong feet, their flight is strong and direct, and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, they eat insects and fruit, and most species nest in holes and lay blue or white eggs. Several species live around human habitation and are effectively omnivores. Many species search for prey such as grubs by "open-bill probing", that is, forcefully opening the bill after inserting it into a crevice, thus expanding the hole and exposing the prey; this behaviour is referred to by the German verb zirkeln (pronounced [ˈtsɪʁkl̩n]).[1]

Starlings have diverse and complex vocalizations and have been known to embed sounds from their surroundings into their own calls, including car alarms and human speech patterns. The birds can recognize particular individuals by their calls and have been the subject of research into the evolution of human language.[2]

Description

[edit]
The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) has iridescent plumage.

Starlings are medium-sized passerines.[3] The shortest-bodied species is Kenrick's starling (Poeoptera kenricki), at 15 cm (6 in), but the lightest-weight species is Abbott's starling (Poeoptera femoralis), which is 34 g (1+1⁄4 oz). The largest starling, going on standard measurements and perhaps weight, is the Nias hill myna (Gracula robusta). This species can measure up to 36 cm (14 in), and in domestication they can weigh up to 400 g (14 oz). Rivaling the prior species in bulk if not dimensions, the mynas of the genus Mino are also large, especially the yellow-faced (M. dumontii) and long-tailed mynas (M. kreffti). The longest species in the family is the white-necked myna (Streptocitta albicollis), which can measure up to 50 cm (19+1⁄2 in), although around 60% in this magpie-like species is comprised by its very long tail.[4]

Less sexual dimorphism is seen in plumage, but with only 25 species showing such differences between the two sexes. The plumage of the starling is often brightly coloured due to iridescence; this colour is derived from the structure of the feathers, not from any pigment. Some species of Asian starling have crests or erectile feathers on the crest. Other ornamentation includes elongated tail feathers and brightly coloured bare areas on the face. These colours can be derived from pigments, or as in the Bali myna, structural colour, caused by light scattering off parallel collagen fibers. The irises of many species are red and yellow, although those of younger birds are much darker.[3]

Distribution, habitat and movements

[edit]
The chestnut-tailed starling is a partial migrant over much of the east of its range, but its movements are poorly understood.

Starlings inhabit a wide range of habitats from the Arctic Circle to the Equator. The only habitats they do not typically occupy are very dry sandy deserts. The family is naturally absent from the Americas and from large parts of Australia, but it is present over the majority of Europe, Africa, and Asia. The genus Aplonis has also spread widely across the islands of the Pacific, reaching Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia[3] (in addition one species in the genus Mino has reached the Solomon Islands[5]). Also, a species of this genus is the only starling found in northern Australia.[3]

Asian species are most common in evergreen forests; 39 species found in Asia are predominantly forest birds as opposed to 24 found in more open or human modified environments. In contrast to this, African species are more likely to be found in open woodlands and savannah; 33 species are open-area specialists compared to 13 true forest species. The high diversity of species found in Asia and Africa is not matched by Europe, which has one widespread (and very common) species and two more restricted species. The European starling is both highly widespread and extremely eclectic in its habitat, occupying most types of open habitat. Like many other starling species, it has also adapted readily to human-modified habitat, including farmland, orchards, plantations, and urban areas.[3]

Some species of starlings are migratory, either entirely, like Shelley's starling, which breeds in Ethiopia and Somaliland and migrates to Kenya, Tanzania, and Somalia, or like the white-shouldered starling, which is migratory in part of its range, but is resident in others.[3]

The European starling was purposely introduced to North America in the 1870s through the 1890s by multiple acclimatisation societies, organizations dedicated to introducing European flora and fauna into North America for cultural and economic reasons.[6] A persistent story alleges that Eugene Schieffelin, chairman of the American Acclimatization Society, decided all birds mentioned by William Shakespeare should be in North America, leading to the introduction of the starling to the U.S.; however, this claim is more fiction than fact.[7][6] While Schieffelin and other members of the society did release starlings in Central Park in 1890, the birds had already been in the U.S. since at least the mid-1870s, and Schieffelin was not inspired to do so by Shakespeare's works.[6]

Behavior

[edit]

Starlings imitate a variety of avian species and have a repertoire of about 15–20 distinct imitations. They also imitate a few sounds other than those of wild birds. The calls of abundant species or calls that are simple in frequency structure and show little amplitude modulation are preferentially imitated. Dialects of mimicked sounds can be local.[3]

The Starling's sociality is particularly evident in their roosting behavior; in the nonbreeding season, some roosts can number in the thousands.[3]

Murmuration

[edit]
Murmuration of common starlings at Newport Wetlands Nature Reserve, Wales

A highly social bird, most starlings associate in flocks of varying sizes throughout the year and are widely known for a distinctive, often dramatic swarming behavior known as murmuration[8] — a simultaneously synchronized and seemingly random flock movement characterized by sudden, erratic direction changes without an observable leader.[9]

The sharp pushing, pulling, diving, pulsating and swooping of the flock in response to the individual movements may confuse and discourage predators such as falcons, providing a collective protection.[10] The term murmuration derives from the low, indistinct sounds of a dense flock's wings — i.e., the murmor.[9]

Initial study by ornithologist Edmund Selous (1887-1934) sought to explain the murmurmation of starlings through the idea of thought-transference.[11] By 2013, physicists in Italy along with mechanical and aerospace engineers working with Princeton University, determined that no single bird could control a flock, and certainly not the movements of more than a thousand birds. Researchers used a computer simulation to determine that each bird synchronized with its seven closest neighbors, creating overlapping groups that communicated their movements — focusing on three simple parameters: attraction, repulsion and angular alignment.[11] Thus the flock moves as each individual bird synchronizes with its nearest group.[9] Researchers also confirmed that a particular shape to the flock formation worked most efficiently for data accuracy — and specifically in starlings, a pancake shape. Thinner, thicker or spherical shapes did not improve performance, rather optimal performance was related to a pancake flock shape.[12]

They noted that "information moves across the flock very quickly and with nearly no degradation,"[13] describing it as "a high signal-to-noise ratio"[13] enabled by a bird's very high temporal resolution: they can receive and process certain information more quickly than humans and can "see faster" than humans."[11] Unlike the children's game of telephone where a message is sequentially passed from person to person and very quickly loses information, researchers determined that almost no information is lost across a starling flock.[13]

Starling murmurations can last from a few seconds up to 45 minutes; can involve few birds or up to tens of thousands;[10] may include other species of starlings or species from other families; and sometimes form abstract dramatic shapes, patterns or subtle gradations.[10] In Denmark, where murmurations have been estimated to involve a million starlings, the phenomenon is called the Black Sun, or Sort sol in Danish.[14] In Ireland, starlings’ numbers are boosted during winter, as migrating flocks arrive from breeding grounds around Western Europe and Scandinavia.

Diet and feeding

[edit]
Micronesian starlings have been observed feeding on the eggs of seabirds.
Two starlings and an American robin (right) on grape arbor: The American robin is plucking a grape. Robins and starlings cause serious damage to ripening grapes in California and elsewhere.

The diets of the starlings are usually dominated by fruits and insects. Many species are important dispersers of seeds, in Asia and Africa, for example, white sandalwood and Indian banyan. In addition to trees, they are also important dispersers of parasitic mistletoes. In South Africa, the red-winged starling is an important disperser of the introduced Acacia cyclops. Starlings have been observed feeding on fermenting over-ripe fruit, which led to the speculation that they might become intoxicated by the alcohol.[3]

Laboratory experiments on European starlings have found that they have disposal enzymes that allow them to break down alcohol very quickly.[15] In addition to consuming fruits, many starlings also consume nectar. The extent to which starlings are important pollinators is unknown, but at least some are, such as the slender-billed starling of alpine East Africa, which pollinates giant lobelias.[3]

Systematics

[edit]

The starling family Sturnidae was introduced (as Sturnidia) by French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815.[16][17] The starlings belong to the superfamily Muscicapoidea, together with thrushes, flycatchers and chats, as well as dippers, which are quite distant relatives, and Mimidae (thrashers and mockingbirds). The latter are apparently the Sturnidae's closest living relatives, replace them in the Americas, and have a rather similar but more solitary lifestyle. They are morphologically quite similar too—a partly albinistic specimen of a mimid, mislabelled as to suggest an Old World origin, was for many decades believed to represent an extinct starling (see Rodrigues starling for details).

European starling eggs
Adult feeding young

The oxpeckers are sometimes placed here as a subfamily, but the weight of evidence has shifted towards granting them full family status as a more basal member of the Sturnidae-Mimidae group, derived from an early expansion into Africa.

Usually, the starlings are considered a family, as is done here. Sibley & Monroe[18] included the mimids in the family and demoted the starlings to tribe rank, as Sturnini. This treatment was used by Zuccon et al.[19] However, the grouping of Sibley & Monroe is overly coarse due to methodological drawbacks of their DNA-DNA hybridization technique and most of their proposed revisions of taxonomic rank have not been accepted (see for example Ciconiiformes). The all-inclusive Sturnidae grouping conveys little information about biogeography, and obscures the evolutionary distinctness of the three lineages. Establishing a valid name for the clade consisting of Sibley/Monroe's "pan-Sturnidae" would nonetheless be desirable to contrast them with the other major lineages of Muscicapoidea.

Starlings probably originated in the general area of East Asia, perhaps towards the southwestern Pacific, as inferred by the number of plesiomorphic lineages to occur there. Expansion into Africa appears to have occurred later, as most derived forms are found there. An alternative scenario would be African origin for the entire "sturnoid" group,[19] with the oxpeckers representing an ancient relict and the mimids arriving in South America. This is contradicted by the North American distribution of the most basal Mimidae.[19][20]

As the fossil record is limited to quite Recent forms, the proposed Early Miocene (about 25–20 Mya) divergence dates for the "sturnoids" lineages must be considered extremely tentative. Given the overall evidence for the origin of most Passeri families in the first half of the Miocene, it appears to be not too far off the mark, however.[19]

As of 2007, recent studies[19][20] identified two major clades of this family, corresponding to the generally drab, often striped, largish "atypical mynas" and other mainly Asian-Pacific lineages, and the often smaller, sometimes highly apomorphic taxa which are most common in Africa and the Palearctic, usually have metallic coloration, and in a number of species also bright carotinoid plumage colors on the underside. Inside this latter group, there is a clade consisting of species which, again, are usually not too brightly colored, and which consists of the "typical" myna-Sturnus assemblage.

The Philippine creepers, a single genus of three species of treecreeper-like birds, appear to be highly apomorphic members of the more initial radiation of the Sturnidae.[19] While this may seem odd at first glance, their placement has always been contentious. In addition, biogeography virtually rules out a close relationship of Philippine creepers and treecreepers, as neither the latter nor their close relatives seem to have ever reached Wallacea, let alone the Philippines. Nonetheless, their inclusion in the Sturnidae is not entirely final and eventually, they may remain a separate family.

Genus sequence follows traditional treatments. This is apparently not entirely correct, with Scissirostrum closer to Aplonis than to Gracula, for example, and Acridotheres among the most advanced genera. Too few taxa have yet been studied as regards their relationships, however, thus a change in the sequence has to wait for further studies.

As of 2023, the review by Lovette & Rubenstein (2008) is the most recent work on the phylogeny of the group.[21] This taxonomy is also based on the order of the IOC.[22]

Oriental-Australasian clade
Genus Species Image
Acridotheres

Common myna (A. tristis)

Agropsar

(sometimes included in Sturnus or Sturnia)

Daurian starling (A. sturninus)

Ampeliceps

Golden-crested myna (A. coronatus)

Aplonis 22 extant,

3 recently extinct

Metallic starling (A. metallica)

Basilornis

Sulawesi myna (B. celebensis)

Enodes

Fiery-browed myna (E. erythrophris)

Goodfellowia

Apo myna (G. miranda)

Gracula

Southern hill myna (G. indica)

Gracupica

Indian pied myna (G. contra)

Leucopsar

Bali myna (L. rothschildi)

Mino

Yellow-faced myna (M. dumontii)

Sarcops

Coleto (S. calvus)

Scissirostrum

Grosbeak starling (S. dubium)

Spodiopsar

White-cheeked starling (S. cineraceus)

Streptocitta

White-necked myna (S. albicollis)

Sturnia

(sometimes included in Sturnus)

Brahminy starling (S. pagodarum)

Sturnornis

White-faced starling (S. albofrontatus)

†Fregilupus

Hoopoe starling (†F. varius)

†Necropsar

Rodrigues starling (†N. rodericanus)

Afrotropical-Palearctic clade
Genus Species Image
Arizelopsar

Abbott's starling (A. femoralis)

Cinnyricinclus

Violet-backed starling (C. leucogaster)

Creatophora

Wattled starling (C. cinerea)

Grafisia

White-collared starling (G. torquata)

Hartlaubius

Madagascar starling (H. auratus)

Hylopsar

Purple-headed starling (H. purpureiceps)

Lamprotornis

(sometimes included in Sturnus)

Greater blue-eared starling (L. chalybaeus)

Neocichla

Babbling starling (N. gutturalis)

Notopholia

Black-bellied starling (N. corusca)

Onychognathus

Red-winged starling (O. morio)

Pastor

Rosy starling (P. roseus)

Pholia

Sharpe's starling (P. sharpii)

Poeoptera

Stuhlmann's starling (P. stuhlmanni)

Saroglossa

Spot-winged starling (S. spilopterus)

Speculipastor

Magpie starling (S. bicolor)

Sturnus

Common starling (S. vulgaris)

Rhabdornis clade
Genus Species Image
Rhabdornis

Grand rhabdornis (R. grandis)

Unresolved
Genus Species Image
†Cryptopsar

Mauritius starling (C. ischyrhynchus)

The extinct Mascarene starlings were formerly of uncertain relationships, but are now thought to belong to the Oriental-Australasian clade, being allied with the Bali myna.[22] However, while the two more recent species (Fregipilus and Necropsar) have been classified, the prehistoric Cryptopsar has not.

References

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Starling

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Starlings are small to medium-sized birds comprising the family Sturnidae, which includes approximately 128 known for their glossy, iridescent , vocal abilities, and highly . These birds are characterized by a stocky build, pointed wings, short square tails, and strong, conical bills adapted for probing and capturing . Members of the family exhibit a range of sizes from 15 to 36 cm in length, with many species displaying metallic sheens in shades of purple, green, or blue during breeding season, often speckled in winter. Native to the , starlings are primarily distributed across , , and , with centers of diversity in and ; several have been introduced to , , and other regions, where they have become widespread and sometimes invasive. The includes starlings and mynas (larger Asian forms), with oxpeckers (African species that on large mammals) now classified in the related family Buphagidae, reflecting adaptations to diverse habitats from forests and grasslands to urban areas. Introduced populations, such as the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) in since the 1890s, numbered over 200 million as of the early 2000s but have since declined by about 15% since 2015, with estimates around 150 million as of 2020, and continue to compete with native cavity-nesting birds for resources. Starlings are omnivorous, feeding mainly on , fruits, seeds, and grains, often in large, noisy flocks or in murmurations during flight, which can involve thousands of individuals performing synchronized aerial displays. They are renowned for their vocal complexity, capable of mimicking up to 20 other bird calls, whistles, and mechanical sounds, with males using to attract mates and defend territories. Breeding typically occurs in cavities, with monogamous or polygamous pairs raising 4–6 per ; their adaptability to human-modified environments has facilitated global range expansions but also led to agricultural damage and ecological impacts in non-native areas.

Taxonomy and Evolution

Classification

The family Sturnidae is placed within the order Passeriformes, the perching birds, and the superfamily Muscicapoidea, which encompasses various groups characterized by oscine vocalization abilities. The name Sturnidae was established by the French in 1815, deriving from the Latin term sturnus for , reflecting the family's core genus. This taxonomic framework positions starlings as part of the diverse Passeriformes radiation, distinct from related families like thrushes (Turdidae) through molecular and morphological distinctions. Sturnidae encompasses approximately 123 extant species distributed across 35 genera, showcasing a wide array of ecological adaptations within the tropics and subtropics. Notable genera include , which comprises the true starlings such as the widespread (S. vulgaris), and Aplonis, home to the Pacific starlings that dominate island ecosystems from to . Other prominent genera, like Lamprotornis with its glossy African species and featuring mynas of Asian grasslands, highlight the family's morphological diversity from small, iridescent forest dwellers to larger, opportunistic open-country birds. Formerly, groups like oxpeckers (now in the separate family Buphagidae) and mockingbirds (Mimidae) were classified as subfamilies within Sturnidae, but phylogenetic analyses have elevated them to distinct families based on genetic evidence. This refined structure underscores the family's monophyletic status within Passeriformes, with Sturnus serving as the type genus. Nomenclaturally, the foundation of Sturnidae traces to Carl Linnaeus's 1758 Systema Naturae (10th edition), where he described the common starling as Sturnus vulgaris, establishing the binomial nomenclature for the genus and designating it as the type species by tautonymy. Subsequent revisions, informed by molecular phylogenies, have stabilized the classification, confirming East Asian origins for the family's diversification while maintaining the core structure coined by Rafinesque.

Phylogenetic history

The starling family (Sturnidae) originated in during the epoch, with molecular dating estimates placing the initial divergence of the lineage around 25–20 million years ago, coinciding with climatic changes that enabled ecological expansions into , , and . This early radiation is inferred from phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences, which highlight the family's adaptation to diverse habitats across the . The fossil record, though limited, corroborates this timeline, with the earliest confirmed Sturnidae remains—a fragmentary attributed to the Dobrosturnus—dating to the middle (approximately 15–13 million years ago) from the Kardam locality in northeastern , representing one of the oldest known occurrences of the family in . Phylogenetic studies have identified two primary clades within Sturnidae: one comprising the Asian mynas (e.g., genera Acridotheres and Gracula) and their allies, including the now-separate oxpeckers (Buphagidae), and the other encompassing the "true" starlings (e.g., Sturnus, Lamprotornis, and African oxpecker-like forms). This bipartition emerged from comprehensive molecular analyses of over 100 species, revealing deep divergences driven by geographic isolation and habitat specialization during the late Miocene. Subsequent phylogenomic approaches, incorporating whole-mitogenome sequencing, have refined these relationships, confirming the myna-oxpecker clade's basal position and underscoring rapid diversification events linked to sociality and dispersal capabilities in the Pliocene. Recent studies (as of 2024) further support the monophyly of Sturnidae and identify six major subclades, reflecting ongoing refinements in genus-level taxonomy. Within the Passeriformes order, Sturnidae belongs to the Muscicapoidea superfamily; Sturnidae and Mimidae are sister taxa, with that sister to Buphagidae (oxpeckers), and the resulting group sister to the combined of thrushes (Turdidae) and flycatchers (Muscicapidae), with this split estimated to have occurred in the to early based on multi-locus datasets. Key adaptive radiations within starlings, such as the colonization of island archipelagos and open savannas, are evidenced by dated phylogenies showing bursts of in the , particularly in Asian and African lineages.

Physical Description

Morphology

Starlings (family Sturnidae) are medium-sized birds characterized by compact bodies, strong legs suited for terrestrial foraging and perching, and relatively short tails that contribute to their stocky appearance. Across the family, body size varies considerably, with lengths ranging from approximately 15 cm in smaller species like Kenrick's starling (Poeoptera kenricki) to over 35 cm in larger , and weights from about 34 g in diminutive forms like Abbott's starling (Poeoptera femoralis) to 250 g or more in robust species such as the hill myna (Gracula robusta). This range reflects adaptations to diverse ecological niches within the family, though all share a generally robust build relative to other s of similar size. The bill exhibits notable variation correlated with dietary preferences, being slender and pointed in primarily insectivorous species such as the (Sturnus vulgaris), which facilitates probing for in soil or foliage. In contrast, fruit-eating species like the possess a more robust, curved bill adapted for handling soft fruits and . The wings are structured for agile, , typically featuring 10 primary feathers that enable quick maneuvers and sustained travel during migrations or foraging. Skeletally, starlings possess a well-developed at the tracheal bifurcation, the avian vocal organ responsible for their renowned and complex songs, with anatomical details varying slightly by species but supporting bilateral sound production. Sexual dimorphism in morphology is generally minimal throughout the Sturnidae, with most species showing little difference in or between sexes beyond subtle size variations. In certain genera, such as , males tend to be slightly larger than females, a pattern linked to reproductive roles but not pronounced enough to aid reliable field identification.

Plumage and coloration

Starlings exhibit striking iridescent primarily through the orderly arrangement of melanosomes—melanin-containing organelles—within the cortex of their barbules, which creates that reflects light in metallic sheens of blue, green, and purple. This mechanism is evident in species like the (Sturnus vulgaris), where the winter plumage features speckled patterns enhanced by these iridescent highlights on otherwise dark feathers. The thickness of the cortex surrounding the melanosomes plays a critical role in determining the specific hues produced. Many starling species undergo a single annual prebasic molt following the breeding season, resulting in distinct seasonal plumage changes. In the , the breeding plumage is glossy and spotless, with iridescent black feathers displaying purple and green gloss, while the non-breeding plumage acquires white tips on the feathers during the fall molt, creating a heavily spotted appearance that wears off over winter to reveal the darker base color. Juvenile starlings hatch with feathers and develop a duller, pale brown overall with dark bills, undergoing their first molt within two months to transition toward adult-like feathers the following year. Plumage variations occur across starling genera, reflecting adaptations in structural and pigment elements. African glossy starlings of the genus Lamprotornis, such as the (Lamprotornis superbus), display highly glossy, iridescent blue and green upperparts due to specialized hollow and flattened structures. In contrast, some starling species, such as African oxpeckers (genus Buphagus) and certain Asian mynas (genus ), exhibit duller, less iridescent plumage with matte black or brown tones lacking pronounced metallic sheens. Starling feather coloration relies on a combination of structural elements and pigments, with contributing hues in select . For instance, while most starlings lack true red pigments and do not produce red carotenoid derivatives in their s, like the wattled starling (Creatophora cinerea) incorporate dietary to accent bare skin areas adjacent to , though their feathers remain predominantly pale gray without yellow pigmentation. This absence of red feather pigments underscores the family's reliance on melanin-based and structural colors for visual diversity.

Distribution and Habitat

Global distribution

Starlings (family Sturnidae) are predominantly an family, with their native range encompassing , , , , and numerous Pacific islands, while they occur naturally nowhere in the or . The family comprises approximately 128 across 36 , with centers of highest diversity in the Oriental () and Afrotropical () biogeographic realms. In , only a handful of are native, including the (Sturnus vulgaris), (S. unicolor), and rose-colored starling (Pastor roseus), reflecting the region's relatively low compared to tropical areas. hosts the greatest number of , exceeding 50, many of which are mynas adapted to diverse habitats from the to . supports over 30 , primarily glossy starlings in the genus Lamprotornis, distributed across savannas and woodlands south of the . features a few , such as the metallic starling (Aplonis metallica), while the tropical Pacific islands harbor around 25 in the genus Aplonis alone, many restricted to oceanic archipelagos. Introduced populations have significantly expanded the family's footprint beyond its native ranges, often through deliberate releases or escapes. The common starling was introduced to in the 1890s, starting with releases in , and has since colonized much of the continent from to , becoming one of the most widespread non-native birds there. This has also established thriving populations in since the 1860s and in from the early 1900s, where it competes with native avifauna. Other introductions include the (Gracula religiosa), which has formed small feral groups in from escaped pets since the 1970s, though these remain localized. In , multiple have been introduced and become invasive, such as the (Acridotheres tristis), jungle myna (A. fuscus), and , altering local ecosystems through and nest . Endemic hotspots underscore the family's biogeographic concentration in island systems, particularly the Indonesian archipelago, where over 20 species occur, many restricted to specific islands in . Examples include the critically endangered Bali starling (Leucopsar rothschildi), unique to , and the Tanimbar starling (Aplonis crassa), confined to the . These endemics highlight the Oriental realm's role as a cradle of diversification, driven by isolation and varied island habitats. Across realms, migratory movements occasionally link distant populations, such as the common starling's wintering in from European breeding grounds.

Habitat requirements

Starlings of the family Sturnidae exhibit remarkable versatility in their habitat preferences, occupying a wide array of environments including open woodlands, savannas, grasslands, and urban areas. They particularly favor regions with scattered trees, which provide essential perching and nesting opportunities amid otherwise open landscapes. For nesting, most starling species utilize cavities in trees, cliffs, or human-made structures such as buildings and bridges, reflecting their opportunistic use of available shelters. Ground-nesting is uncommon across the family, though it occurs rarely in certain taxa, such as the wattled starling (Creatophora cinerea) in . The family demonstrates broad climate tolerance, thriving in temperate zones of and as well as tropical regions across , , and . In arid environments, such as semi-deserts, starlings adapt by relying on proximate water sources like on foliage or , enabling survival in otherwise dry habitats. Certain starling lineages, notably the oxpeckers (genus ), form symbiotic associations in African savannas, where they perch on large mammals like rhinos, , and buffalo to forage on ectoparasites, benefiting both parties in a mutualistic relationship. These birds are restricted to open grasslands and savannas supporting herds of herbivores, underscoring their dependence on such dynamic microhabitats.

Migration and movements

Starlings exhibit varied migration patterns across species, with many displaying partial or nomadic behaviors rather than strict long-distance migrations. In the common European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), northern populations are partial migrants, with individuals from regions like and the relocating southward during winter to areas including the Mediterranean Basin and to escape harsh conditions. These movements typically occur from late summer through autumn, with birds returning north in spring, while southern European populations remain largely resident year-round. In contrast, tropical members of the Sturnidae family, such as the wattled starling (Creatophora cinerea) in eastern and southern Africa, often show nomadic tendencies, wandering irregularly in search of food resources without fixed seasonal routes. Some starling species undertake irruptive movements triggered by food scarcity, leading to sudden, large-scale displacements beyond typical ranges. For instance, the (Pastor roseus) performs irruptive migrations into western Europe and less arid habitats in years when grasshoppers, locusts, and other are abundant in their Central Asian breeding grounds, often following swarms and forming massive flocks that can number in the thousands during transit. These irregular shifts allow birds to exploit temporary abundances of or fruits, with flock sizes swelling to thousands as individuals aggregate for efficient and protection en route. During migration, starlings rely on a combination of navigational cues, including celestial orientation via the sun and , geomagnetic fields for directional sensing, and visual landmarks for fine-scale adjustments. These mechanisms enable precise orientation over varying distances, with migrating flocks typically traveling at average speeds of 40-60 km/h, allowing coverage of hundreds of kilometers daily. In introduced populations, such as those in established in the late , most individuals are sedentary in milder climates across the continent, though northern and montane groups engage in short-distance or altitudinal migrations southward or to lower elevations in winter. This overlaps with their native partial migration strategies but is moderated by abundant urban food sources and reduced seasonal extremes.

Behavior

Social behavior and murmurations

Starlings are highly gregarious birds that form large flocks year-round, providing protection against predators through mechanisms such as the dilution effect and predator . These flocks can number in the thousands, particularly during non-breeding seasons, and are observed across rural, suburban, and urban habitats. The presence of predators like sparrowhawks or peregrine falcons is positively correlated with flock size and murmuration duration, supporting the anti-predator function of grouping. A key aspect of their social communication is complex vocal , with the (Sturnus vulgaris) capable of imitating the calls of up to 20 different species, including those of wood-pewees and in . This enhances social interactions within flocks and may aid in territory defense or mate attraction. Their vocalizations also briefly coordinate by signaling food locations to group members. Murmurations represent one of the most striking examples of social behavior, involving synchronized aerial displays by thousands of individuals that form dynamic shapes like waves, spheres, and ribbons. These formations primarily serve to confuse predators, as the rapid, unpredictable movements make it difficult for attackers to single out individuals. The coordination arises from simple density rules, where each continuously aligns its direction and matches the velocity of its approximately seven nearest neighbors, relying on visual cues for local decision-making rather than global information. Flock sizes in murmurations average around 30,000 birds, with durations typically lasting 26 minutes, often lengthening at the start or end of the winter season when predation risk is higher. Within flocks, starlings establish dominance hierarchies influenced by age and sex, with adult males generally dominating females and older individuals outranking younger ones at feeding and roosting sites. Dominant birds initiate more agonistic encounters, such as pecking or chasing, securing priority access to resources. Social bonds are reinforced through allopreening, where individuals mutually preen each other's feathers, reducing tension and maintaining group cohesion. Starlings engage in interspecies interactions, including cooperative of predators, where flocks use tight formations and coordinated dives to harass and deter threats like . They also occasionally hybridize with closely related species, such as the ( unicolor), in overlapping ranges in southwestern and northeastern , producing mixed pairs that demonstrate between the taxa.

Diet and feeding

Starlings are omnivorous birds with a highly adaptable diet that includes a wide range of animal and plant matter. Their primary food sources consist of such as , particularly beetles and their larvae, which form the bulk of their intake during the breeding season when protein demands are high. In non-breeding periods, they shift toward more plant-based foods, including fruits, seeds, and occasionally nectar from flowers, allowing them to exploit seasonal availability and maintain energy balance. This dietary flexibility supports their opportunistic feeding strategy across diverse environments. Foraging techniques vary by and prey type, with starlings frequently probing the ground using their strong, pointed bills to extract buried from or short grass. They also engage in aerial hawking to capture flying and glean food from foliage or tree bark, demonstrating agility in both terrestrial and arboreal settings. Often, they forage in flocks, where coordinated movements enhance detection of food patches through shared vigilance and among individuals. Physiologically, starlings possess digestive adaptations suited to their varied diet, including a that grinds tough plant material like seeds and a for temporary , enabling efficient processing of mixed meals. Their high metabolic rate, characteristic of small passerines, demands frequent feeding to sustain daily energy expenditures, particularly during periods of intense activity like migration or breeding. In agricultural contexts, starlings can have dual impacts: they consume crops such as cherries and grains, leading to economic losses in orchards and fields, but they also help control insect pests like armyworms by preying on larvae in pastures and crops. This balance influences management strategies in farming areas where their presence is both beneficial and problematic.

Reproduction

Starlings typically form monogamous pairs for the duration of a breeding season, with pair bonds lasting through the reproductive period, although facultative can occur in some individuals. involves elaborate displays by males, including singing complex warbled songs rich in of other , bowing low, puffing out their body , fanning tails, spreading wings, and strutting to attract females. Females assess males based on song length, repertoire size, and quality, which signal genetic quality, health, and developmental stability, influencing through . During these displays, males showcase their breeding , which becomes more iridescent and speckled to enhance visual appeal. Nesting sites are primarily tree cavities, cliffs, or man-made structures like buildings and nest boxes, with both parents constructing bulky nests lined with grass, feathers, pine needles, and other soft materials. Some starling species, such as the common myna (Acridotheres tristis), exhibit colonial breeding, where multiple pairs nest in close proximity within shared sites like tree hollows or urban structures. Clutches consist of typically 4-6 pale blue or greenish eggs, but up to 7, laid one per day, with incubation lasting 11-15 days primarily by the female, though males contribute during the day. Both parents feed the altricial nestlings a diet of and soft foods, brooding them continuously at first and reducing it as they grow; fledging occurs at about 21 days, after which parents continue provisioning for 2-4 additional days. In tropical regions, pairs often raise multiple broods per year, up to two or three, enabling higher reproductive output in favorable conditions.

Conservation and Human Relations

Starling populations face multiple anthropogenic and environmental threats that vary across the family's approximately 120 species. Habitat loss from agricultural expansion, , and is a primary concern, particularly for forest-dependent species in tropical regions. For instance, the (Leucopsar rothschildi) has suffered severe declines due to habitat conversion to plantations and settlements in its restricted range on , . use in has also contributed to population reductions in grassland and farmland species, with studies linking exposure to broader avian declines, including those affecting starlings through reduced invertebrate prey availability. Invasive spread of the ( vulgaris) exacerbates risks to native outside its Palearctic range. Introduced to and in the , it aggressively competes for nesting cavities and food resources, displacing native cavity-nesting birds such as parrots and displacing other through nest usurpation and . This competition has led to documented declines in several native avian populations in these regions, though the itself thrives in introduced areas. Climate change disrupts starling migration by advancing spring vegetation faster than bird arrival times, potentially causing trophic mismatches with peak food resources like . outbreaks, such as avian pox caused by avipoxviruses and transmitted via mosquitoes or direct contact, further threaten populations; starlings can act as reservoirs, spreading the to other birds and contributing to mortality in . Globally, Sturnidae populations exhibit varied trends, with many species classified as Least Concern by the IUCN but others ranging to Critically Endangered due to localized pressures. The common starling is estimated at 150 million mature individuals as of 2008, though the global population trend is decreasing; yet it has undergone sharp regional declines, including a 68% reduction across Europe from 1980 to 2015, attributed to habitat changes and agricultural intensification. In contrast, the Bali myna's wild population has grown to approximately 460 individuals as of 2022, primarily in protected areas, though it remains critically endangered.

Conservation efforts and human impact

Conservation efforts for threatened starling species, such as the critically endangered Bali starling (Leucopsar rothschildi), have focused on programs established in the 1980s and intensified reintroduction initiatives since the 1990s. Organizations including the Begawan Foundation, Friends of the National Parks Foundation, and Bali Bird Park have bred birds in controlled environments, providing diets of fruits and nutrient pellets to support reproduction and health. Reintroductions into protected areas like Bali Barat National Park and have aimed to bolster wild populations, which numbered fewer than 10 individuals in 2001; as of October 2021, the population in Bali Barat National Park reached 420 individuals, with an additional approximately 40 on as of 2022, demonstrating signs of recovery through ongoing habitat restoration, , and to protect nesting sites. Habitat restoration efforts in emphasize regenerating dry forests through and long-term monitoring, involving local to protect nesting sites. The Bali starling is protected under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which prohibits commercial trade and strictly regulates even captive-bred specimens to prevent further decline. Other threatened starlings, such as the black-winged myna (Acridotheres melanopterus), also receive CITES protections due to illegal trade pressures. In contrast, invasive European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in North America face management through trapping and culling programs to mitigate ecological and economic harm. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Wildlife Services employs cage traps that can capture up to 100 birds per day during early seasons and the avicide DRC-1339 for targeted culls, with treatments costing $800 to $5,000 each and removing 70% to 100% of local flocks (up to 20,000 birds). These efforts address annual agricultural damages estimated at $800 million to $1 billion, including $189 million to fruit crops like cherries ($51 million), wine grapes ($70 million), and blueberries ($33 million), where starlings consume or damage 3% to 25% of yields. Despite their pest status, European starlings provide benefits in by consuming pests like grubs, contributing to natural in pastures and lawns. Culturally, starlings hold symbolic roles in ; ancient Romans used their murmurations for , interpreting flock patterns as divine omens to approve or reject decisions, while revered them as sacred birds associated with prophecy and unity. Starling murmurations offer potential, particularly in southern where the "" (black sun) phenomenon draws visitors to witness flocks of hundreds of thousands swirling against the sunset, supporting local economies through guided tours from to . These varied interventions reflect responses to declines driving conservation priorities across starling .

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