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Propagation of grapevines
Propagation of grapevines
Propagation of grapevines
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A Sangiovese grapevine in a vineyard with a cane extended. Prior to this cane developing grape clusters it could have been planted in the ground to propagate by layering.

The propagation of grapevines is an important consideration in commercial viticulture and winemaking. Grapevines, most of which belong to the Vitis vinifera family, produce one crop of fruit each growing season with a limited life span for individual vines. While some centenarian old vine examples of grape varieties exist, most grapevines are between the ages of 10 and 30 years. As vineyard owners seek to replant their vines, a number of techniques are available which may include planting a new cutting that has been selected by either clonal or mass (massal) selection. Vines can also be propagated by grafting a new plant vine upon existing rootstock or by layering one of the canes of an existing vine into the ground next to the vine and severing the connection when the new vine develops its own root system.[1]

In commercial viticulture, grapevines are rarely propagated from seedlings as each seed contains unique genetic information from its two parent varieties (the flowering parent and the parent that provided the pollen that fertilized the flower) and would, theoretically, be a different variety than either parent. This would be true even if two hermaphroditic vine varieties, such as Chardonnay, cross pollinated each other. While the grape clusters that would arise from the pollination would be considered Chardonnay, any vines that sprang from one of the seeds of the grape berries would be considered a distinct variety other than Chardonnay. It is for this reason that grapevines are usually propagated from cuttings while grape breeders will utilize seedlings to come up with new grape varieties including crossings that include parents of two varieties within the same species (such as Cabernet Sauvignon which is a crossing of the Vitis vinifera varieties Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon blanc) or hybrid grape varieties which include parents from two different Vitis species such as the Armagnac grape Baco blanc, which was propagated from the vinifera grape Folle blanche and the Vitis labrusca variety Noah.[1]

Terminology

[edit]
Pinot gris (center) and Pinot blanc (right) are color mutations of Pinot noir (left).

A color mutation is a grape variety that while genetically similar to the original variety is considered unique enough to merit being considered its own variety. Both Pinot gris and Pinot blanc are color mutations of Pinot noir.[1]

In viticulture, a clone is a single vine that has been selected from a "mother vine" to which it is identical. This clone may have been selected deliberately from a grapevine that has demonstrated desirable traits (good yields, grape disease resistance, small berry size, etc.) and propagated as cuttings from that mother vine. Varieties such as Sangiovese and Pinot noir are well known to have a variety of clones. While there may be slight mutations to differentiate the various clones, all clones are considered genetically part of the same variety (i.e. Sangiovese or Pinot noir).[2]

A selection massale is the opposite of cloning, where growers select cuttings from the mass of the vineyard, or a field blend.

A crossing is a new grape variety that was created by the cross pollination of two different varieties of the same species. Syrah is a crossing of two French Vitis vinifera species, Dureza from the Ardèche and Mondeuse blanche from Savoie.[3] Theoretically, every seedling (also known as a selfling), even if its pollinated by a member of the same grape variety (i.e. such as two Merlot vines), is a crossing as any vine that results from the seed being planted will be a different grape variety distinct from either parent.[1]

A hybrid is a new grape variety that was produced from a cross pollination of two different grape species. In the early history of American winemaking, grape growers would cross the European Vitis vinifera vines with American vine varieties such as Vitis labrusca to create French-American hybrids that were more resistant to American grape diseases such as downy and powdery mildew as well as phylloxera. When the phylloxera epidemic of the mid to late 19th century hit Europe, some growers in European wine regions experimented with using hybrids until a solution involving grafting American rootstocks to vinifera varieties was found. Eventually, the use of hybrids in wine production declined with their use formally outlawed by European wine laws in the 1950s.[1]

Young vine cuttings in a nursery

Propagation methods

[edit]

As commercial winemakers usually want to work with a desired grape variety that dependably produces a particular crop, most grapevines are propagated by clonal or massal selection of plant material. This can be accomplished in one of three ways.[1]

Cuttings

[edit]

This involves a shoot taken from a mother vine and then planted where the shoot will eventually sprout a root system and regenerate itself into a full-fledged vine with trunk and canopy. Often new cuttings will be first planted in a nursery where it is allowed to develop for a couple of years before being planted in the vineyard.[1]

Grafting

[edit]

Grafting is a process in which a new grape vine is produced by making a cut in the rootstock and then adding scionwood that is cut to fit inside the incision made in the rootstock.[4] This involves removing the canopy and most of the trunk of an existing vine and replacing it with a cutting of a new vine that is sealed by a graft union.

There are two main types of grafting in the relation to the propagation of a grapevine.[5]

Bench Grafting

[edit]
Omega Graft

This process is typically performed in the beginning of a new year in a greenhouse, taking place during the late winter months, to the early spring months. This process is used on younger and smaller vines before the vines are planted in a vineyard. However, the type of cut made on the grape vine determines the classification of the Bench graft. The two techniques to perform a Bench Graft includes the Omega Graft and the Whip Graft.[5][6]

The Omega Graft is performed by the rootstock and scion being grafted together by the two pieces being cut into shapes that align together.[7]

The Whip Graft is performed by making an identical small dip at angle into the rootstock and the scion, so they can be adjoined.[6]

Field Grafting

[edit]

Field grafting is performed after the vine has been planted in a vineyard and has aged a few years. The objective of using this method is to avoid replanting and a final product of a grapevine with two diversifications. The procedure of field grafting is performed with the vines still planted, by making two inversions in the rootstock of a certain type of grapevines and placing two of the same type of scions that differ from the rootstock into the rootstock. The most common ways to perform field grafting are the Chip Bud method, the T Bud method, the Cleft Graft and the Bark Graft.[5][8]

The Chip Bud Method is performed shortly after the grape vine is planted, giving the rootstock enough time to become active but the bud of the grape vine is still inactive. It is performed by cutting two small slopes in both sides of the rootstock and cutting a small scion into a small bud and placing the scion bud into the cuts made on the rootstock.[9]

The T Bud Method is performed by making a cutting a T at the bottom of the grapevine that is above the soil. Once the T is cut, the bark surrounding the cut is pulled back and the scion is placed between the two sides that were pulled back.[10]

The Chip Graft is performed on the branches of a grape vine, when the rootstock is dormant. The method is performed by making a wedge in the rootstock and placing two scions into the wedge. After the Graft starts growing one of the scions is removed, leaving only one to grow.[11]

The Bark Graft is performed by making three incisions on the edge of the grape vine's rootstock, and removing majority of the bark around each of the cuttings, leaving a small amount of bark at the end of the cut and inserting three of the same scions into the incisions, using the remaining piece of the cut bark to cover the end of the scions.[12]

Layering

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In established vineyards where only a few vines need to be replaced within a row (such as vine lost to machine damage or disease), a new vine can be propagated by bending a cane from a neighboring vine into the ground and covering it with dirt. This segment of vine will soon begin sprouting its own independent root system while still being nourished by the connecting vine. Eventually, the connection between the two vines is severed, allowing each vine to grow independently.[1]

Clonal versus massal selection

[edit]
One criticism of clonal selection is that the use of only one or two clones greatly diminishes the genetic diversity of a vineyard.

Each cutting, taken from a mother vine, is a clone of that vine. The way that a vine grower selects these cuttings can be described as either clonal or massal selection. In clonal selection, an ideal plant within a vineyard or nursery that has exhibited the most desirable traits is selected with all cuttings taken from that single plant. In massal (or "mass") selection, cuttings are taken from several vines of the same variety that have collectively demonstrated desirable traits.[1]

A vineyard in the Napa Valley showing which particular clone of Cabernet Sauvignon is planted in this block

Historically, massal selection was the primary means of vineyard propagation, particularly in traditional vineyards where vines are only sporadically replaced, often by layering a cane from a neighboring vine. In the 1950s, the isolation and identification of desirable clones in nurseries and breeding stations lead to an increase in clonal selection with new vineyard plantings seeking out clones from well established vineyards and wine region. This trend towards clonal selection has seen some criticism from wine writers and viticulturalists who complain about "mono-clonal" viticulture that has the risk of producing wines that are overly similar and dull.[1]

Other criticisms of clonal selection involve the increased risk in vineyards lacking genetic diversity among its vines as well as the changing priorities in wine production. While many clones in the mid to late 20th century were isolated, some of the desirable traits exhibited by those clones (such as early ripening or high yield potential) may no longer be as desirable today where other traits (such as low yields and drought resistance) may be more prized.[1]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Propagation of grapevines

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Propagation of grapevines involves techniques to produce genetically identical that preserve the desirable traits of specific cultivars, such as fruit quality and vigor, without the genetic variation introduced by . The primary methods include rooting cuttings and scions onto rootstocks, which are essential for both home gardeners and commercial viticulturists to establish new vineyards efficiently and sustainably. The most common asexual method for own-rooted vines is dormant hardwood cuttings, taken during winter dormancy. In commercial production, especially for European winegrapes (Vitis vinifera), grafting onto phylloxera-resistant rootstocks—typically hybrids of American Vitis species such as V. rupestris and V. riparia—is standard to protect against the root-feeding insect Daktulosphaira vitifoliae, which devastated vineyards in the late 19th century and continues to pose a threat. These rootstocks also offer advantages like nematode resistance and adaptation to varying soil conditions. Grafting techniques include bench grafting during dormancy and field grafting in spring. Alternative approaches, such as softwood cuttings, are used for species like muscadine grapes (), taken from late May to early August and rooted under mist. Across all methods, using certified, disease-free material from reputable sources is vital to avoid viruses such as leafroll and fanleaf degeneration.

Fundamentals of Grapevine Propagation

Importance and Overview

The propagation of grapevines plays a pivotal role in modern , primarily through asexual methods that ensure genetic uniformity and adaptability in the face of historical and ongoing challenges. In the late 19th century, the epidemic, introduced to around the via infested American vine cuttings, devastated vineyards across , , , and beyond, destroying up to 40% of French vines and nearly collapsing the continent's wine industry. This prompted the widespread adoption of European scions onto resistant rootstocks derived from American species, such as , which possess natural defenses against the pest. Asexual propagation dominates because Vitis vinifera cultivars are highly heterozygous, meaning sexual reproduction via seeds leads to significant genetic variability in offspring, resulting in plants that do not replicate the desirable traits of the parent vine, such as specific fruit quality or vigor. In contrast, vegetative methods like cuttings and grafting produce genetically identical clones, preserving the exact characteristics essential for commercial consistency in wine production. These techniques provide critical economic and agricultural benefits by enhancing disease resistance to threats like and nematodes, while improving adaptation to diverse soils, climates, and environmental stresses such as . , in particular, allows the combination of scion varieties for optimal fruit quality with rootstocks for resilience, supporting consistent yields and wine profiles that underpin the global industry's value, estimated at USD 515 billion as of 2024. On a global scale, major viticultural regions like , , and propagate millions of vines each year through certified nurseries to meet replanting demands and expand sustainable acreage.

Key Terminology

In grapevine propagation, the scion refers to the upper shoot portion of a desired , which bears the fruiting variety and is grafted onto a to form the above-ground part of the . The , in contrast, is the lower portion, typically from a different species or hybrid, providing the root system and often selected for resistance to soil-borne pests and diseases; this practice became essential following the epidemic, where rootstocks protect susceptible European varieties. A cutting is a detached segment of a grapevine stem used to produce a new through rooting, usually consisting of one or more nodes from healthy, disease-free canes. During , a forms as an undifferentiated mass of tissue at the cut ends of the scion or cutting, facilitating healing and the initiation of root or graft union development. Propagation methods distinguish between hardwood cuttings, taken from mature, dormant woody stems during the winter rest period (typically November to February), and softwood cuttings, harvested from actively growing, green tips in the summer (around June or July) for quicker rooting under controlled conditions like . Layering involves partially burying an intact stem or cane in while still attached to the parent , encouraging adventitious formation at the buried nodes before separation. Related concepts include a clone, which denotes a propagule genetically identical to the parent , produced through vegetative means from a single selected mother plant to preserve specific traits. In contrast, massal selection (or massale) refers to propagation material gathered from multiple elite vines within a population, maintaining rather than uniformity. Anatomically, nodes are the slightly enlarged sites along the stem where buds, leaves, and lateral shoots emerge, serving as key points for cutting preparation and grafting. The is a thin meristematic layer of cells beneath the bark, responsible for and critical for aligning scion and tissues to enable vascular connections in grafts. (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae) is a minuscule aphid-like that infests grapevine , causing severe damage and necessitating resistant rootstocks for cultivation.

Asexual Propagation Methods

Cuttings

Cuttings represent a primary asexual method for grapevines, involving the rooting of stem segments detached from parent plants to produce genetically identical offspring. This technique is particularly suited for own-rooted vines in regions free from soil-borne pests like , allowing for the rapid multiplication of desirable cultivars without the need for combining plant parts. Common types include cuttings, taken from dormant one-year-old wood during winter (typically 12-18 inches long with 3-7 buds), which offer reliable establishment with success rates of 70-80% under optimal conditions; cuttings, harvested from semi-hardened spring or summer growth, which exhibit higher initial rooting potential but lower long-term survival due to tenderness; and cane cuttings, consisting of multi-node segments from mature canes, often processed as hardwood for bulk production. The procedure begins with selecting healthy, virus-free mother vines during the dormant season for or active growth for , ensuring shoots have pencil-thick diameter and uniform spacing. Cuttings are prepared by making a straight cut below the basal node (for water uptake) and an angled cut above the apical to prevent rot, with leaves and tendrils removed from types to reduce . Basal ends are then dipped in a rooting hormone solution, such as (IBA) at 1000-3000 ppm for 5-24 hours, to stimulate adventitious root formation, though some varieties root readily without treatment. Cuttings are inserted 4-6 inches deep into a sterile, well-drained medium like , , or in propagation beds or trays, spaced 4 inches apart, and maintained under intermittent mist to prevent . After rooting (typically 4-8 weeks), young plants are acclimatized and grown in a nursery for one year before field transplanting. Rooting success depends on environmental conditions, including temperatures of 70-75°F (21-24°C) for optimal and initiation, with bottom heat (80-85°F) often applied via mats while keeping foliage cooler (below 50°F) to delay break. High relative (80-90%) is essential, achieved through systems or enclosed propagators to minimize loss, alongside 8-10 hours of indirect and well-drained, pathogen-free media to avoid fungal issues. Cuttings in 4-8 weeks under these parameters, with provided to maintain consistent moisture without waterlogging. This method's advantages include its cost-effectiveness and simplicity for producing large quantities of uniform plants, preserving local adaptations in non-grafted scenarios, and avoiding the complexities of scion-rootstock unions needed in disease-prone areas. However, limitations arise in humid climates where fungal diseases hinder rooting, and own-rooted vines remain vulnerable to soil pests like nematodes or without resistant . Success rates vary by variety, with V. vinifera often achieving higher rooting (up to 80%) than hybrids or muscadines (10-70%), reflecting inherent physiological differences in adventitious root formation. Post- era practices have adapted cuttings primarily for production to enhance vineyard resilience.

Layering

Layering is an asexual technique for grapevines ( spp.) in which a stem or cane develops while remaining attached to the parent plant, allowing the new plant to draw nutrients and water until it is independent. This method is particularly advantageous for small-scale or repairing established vineyards, as it minimizes transplant shock compared to detached cuttings. Several types of layering are employed in viticulture, each suited to different vine architectures and objectives. Simple layering involves bending a low-growing shoot or cane horizontally into a shallow trench, burying a middle section (typically 4-6 inches deep) to encourage adventitious roots along the buried portion while leaving the tip exposed above ground. Tip layering, often performed in summer, entails burying the terminal end of a vigorous cane in a small hole or mound, promoting root formation at the tip over 3-6 months. Mound layering, also known as stool or heeling-in layering, is applied at the vine base by pruning back the plant and progressively mounding soil around emerging shoots to induce multiple rooting points, yielding several new plants from one parent. The procedure for layering generally begins with selecting healthy, one-year-old canes or shoots during active growth (spring to summer) or . Stems are wounded by scraping or slicing the bark to expose the layer, enhancing initiation, then buried in fertile, well-drained at a depth of 4-6 inches, with buds or tips left above the surface for new shoot development. Moisture is maintained through or mulching, and the layered section is secured with pins or weights; after formation (typically 3-6 months, confirmed by new growth), the rooted portion is severed from the parent and transplanted. Layering finds applications in replacing dead arms or filling gaps in established vineyards, propagating table grapes or hard-to-root varieties such as muscadines (V. rotundifolia), and producing virus-free stock in home gardens or small operations. It supports clonal propagation by preserving exact genetic traits from the parent vine. Success in layering depends on , partial shading to reduce , and consistent , with higher rooting rates (often 70-90%) observed in sandy soils. Healthy parent vines and timely severing post-rooting further enhance outcomes, making it a reliable method for varieties resistant to cuttings. Historically, layering predates modern cutting techniques and remains a traditional approach, especially for muscadine grapes in the , where it facilitates intensive propagation without specialized equipment.

Grafting Techniques

Bench Grafting

Bench grafting is a controlled nursery process conducted during the dormant season, typically from to March in the , where dormant scions from desired varieties are joined to cuttings to produce uniform planting material before field establishment. This method combines the superior fruiting qualities of the scion, often cultivars susceptible to pests, with the vigor and resistance traits of the , such as phylloxera tolerance provided by hybrid selections like 3309 Couderc. Performed indoors, it allows for precise handling and high-volume production of certified virus-free stock, essential since the phylloxera crisis in the late made grafted vines the standard for European cultivation. The process begins with selecting healthy, dormant materials of similar diameter, ideally pencil-thick (about 6-8 mm), ensuring the layers—responsible for nutrient and water transport—align closely for a strong union. Common techniques include the whip-and-tongue graft, which features interlocking diagonal cuts with a "tongue" for mechanical stability; the cleft graft, where the base is split and the wedge-shaped scion is inserted; and the omega graft, a machine-compatible method using interlocking curved cuts for secure alignment. After matching and cutting with sharp grafting knives, the union is secured using rubber bands or tape, then sealed with hot or grafting compound to prevent . The grafted pieces are placed in warm (70-80°F or 21-27°C), humid callusing chambers—such as mist beds or boxes—for 3-4 weeks to promote healing and initial root development, with strict hygiene to minimize fungal risks. Under optimal conditions with healthy material, success rates for bench grafting can exceed 90%, influenced by precise contact, compatible scion-rootstock pairings, and controlled environmental factors during callusing. This high efficiency supports large-scale nursery operations, producing thousands of uniform vines annually for replanting, with the healed grafts transitioned to outdoor nursery beds or pots for further growth before vineyard installation.

Field Grafting

Field grafting involves attaching scions or buds from desired varieties onto established rootstocks in the vineyard, allowing for the replacement or conversion of vines without full replanting. This method is typically performed on actively growing plants during the spring or summer when the bark is slipping, enabling easier insertion of the grafting material. In regions like , it is conducted from early April to mid-May after the frost threat has passed, aligning with cambial activity for optimal union formation. Common techniques include bark grafting and T-budding. In bark grafting, suitable for larger trunks, the is pruned to expose the trunk, vertical slits are made in the loosening bark, and one or more wedge-shaped scions are inserted beneath the bark flaps, secured with nails or tape to ensure contact. T-budding, often used on smaller diameters, entails making a T-shaped incision in the bark, lifting the flap, and inserting a single dormant from the scion, which is then tightly wrapped with plastic tape to promote healing. These methods leverage the 's established , often selected from phylloxera-resistant clonal selections, to support the new top-growth. The procedure begins with pruning the rootstock trunk to a suitable height, typically just below the trellis wire, followed by precise cuts to match the scion or bud to the rootstock's cambium layer. After insertion, the graft site is sealed with grafting compound or latex paint to prevent desiccation, and the area is protected from direct sun exposure using paper bags or shade cloth. The union typically forms within 4-6 weeks, during which emerging shoots are tied to the trellis and suckers from the rootstock are removed to direct energy toward the graft. Post-grafting care includes irrigation to maintain soil moisture and pest monitoring to avoid disruptions during healing. Field is widely applied to replace phylloxera-damaged vines or convert established vineyards from one variety to another, such as shifting from table grapes to wine varieties like . This approach minimizes costs associated with complete replanting, preserving and mature root systems while enabling variety changes in productive blocks. In , it gained prominence in the following widespread outbreaks that affected own-rooted vines, prompting conversions to grafted setups on resistant rootstocks to comply with emerging regulations and sustain industry viability. Success rates for field grafting range from 80% to 95%, depending on vine health, weather conditions, and technique precision, with higher rates achieved under ideal spring timing. Challenges include variable weather impacting formation, excessive flow causing slippage, and risks from pests or diseases during the vulnerable healing period, necessitating balanced irrigation and vigilant suckering. In vineyards, these practices are routine for maintaining economic viability amid pressures, often yielding full production within two years of successful union.

Selection of Propagation Material

Clonal Selection

is the process of identifying superior individual vines, known as mother vines, within a grape variety and propagating genetically identical copies, or clones, from them to ensure consistent performance in vineyards. This method targets elite vines exhibiting desirable traits such as high yield, superior fruit quality, and enhanced resistance, which are evaluated through extensive field trials over multiple growing seasons. The selection process begins with the identification of candidate vines in existing vineyards, followed by detailed assessments of agronomic characteristics like vigor, berry size, and ripening uniformity. Sanitary evaluation is critical, involving virus indexing through techniques such as and to detect pathogens like grapevine leafroll-associated virus, ensuring the clones are free from infections that could compromise vine health. Once approved, propagation occurs via hardwood cuttings or in controlled environments to maintain genetic fidelity and produce certified planting material. Certification is managed by specialized programs that guarantee the quality and traceability of clones. In , the Foundation Plant Services (FPS) at the , oversees the importation, testing, and distribution of clones, assigning unique identifiers such as Cabernet Sauvignon FPS 7, which originated from a high-performing selection in the Concannon vineyard, . Similarly, France's ENTAV-INRA program, now part of the Institut Français de la Vigne et du Vin (IFV), evaluates and certifies clones based on health, agronomic performance, and oenological potential, with approved clones disseminated to nurseries worldwide. These programs ensure that only rigorously tested material enters commercial production, reducing risks associated with uncertified stock. One key advantage of is the uniformity it provides across vineyards, which minimizes variations in wine flavor, color, and aroma while allowing growers to select for specific traits like larger cluster sizes or earlier ripening times to match regional . This predictability aids in consistent wine production and , particularly for premium varietals. However, a notable drawback is the potential loss of intra-varietal when dominates, which can heighten susceptibility to new pests, diseases, or climate shifts if a widely used clone proves vulnerable. The practice of gained prominence in the post-1960s period, coinciding with breakthroughs in grapevine virology that allowed for the elimination of latent viruses through and indexing, transforming the availability of healthy planting stock. Earlier roots trace to the early 19th century in , but systematic programs emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, with widespread adoption in regions like by the 1970s to combat viral epidemics. By the 2020s, hundreds of certified clones had been registered globally across major programs, offering growers a diverse array of options for over 60 varieties in places like alone. In contrast to massal selection, which draws from multiple vines to preserve , clonal selection emphasizes precision and uniformity from a single elite source.

Massal Selection

Massal selection, also known as sélection massale, is a traditional method of grapevine that involves selecting and multiplying cuttings from a diverse group of healthy, high-performing vines within an existing or regional collection, rather than from a single genetically identical clone. This approach aims to preserve intra-varietal , allowing for a heterogeneous planting that reflects the natural variability of the . Historically prevalent in European before the widespread adoption of in the , massal selection was the primary means of replanting , particularly in old, pre-phylloxera sites where vines exhibited adaptation to local conditions. The process typically begins with the prospection of mature vineyards, often those over 40 years old, where individual vines are evaluated based on agronomic, phenological, and oenological criteria. Selectors identify vines showing desirable traits such as late budburst to mitigate risk, small size and loose cluster compactness for optimal and resistance, consistent with at least one bunch per shoot, and overall sanitary free from viruses or pathogens. Cuttings are then taken from these selected vines—ideally from multiple individuals to maintain diversity—and propagated vegetatively through methods like cuttings or onto rootstocks. In practice, this may involve mapping thousands of vines, as in a study of a parcel where 4,016 plants were assessed, leading to the selection of 816 promising individuals across sub-parcels after multi-year observations to account for environmental variability. The resulting planting material is often used to establish new vineyards or replenish old ones, with recommendations to allocate at least 5% of vineyard area to such diverse selections for long-term conservation. One key advantage of massal selection is its role in maintaining , which enhances resilience to pests, diseases, and while supporting terroir-specific wine complexity through varied flavor profiles and ripening behaviors. For instance, in regions like or the , it allows preservation of ancient strains adapted to local soils and microclimates, potentially yielding wines with greater aromatic depth compared to uniform clonal plantings. However, challenges include the risk of propagating latent viruses or other pathogens from old vines, which can compromise new plantings without prior sanitization, and the inherent variability that may lead to inconsistent yields or quality if selections are not rigorously evaluated over multiple vintages. To mitigate these, modern implementations often incorporate sanitary testing and statistical analysis to balance diversity with reliability, positioning massal selection as a complementary strategy to clonal methods in sustainable . In recent years, particularly as of 2024-2025, massal selection has seen a revival in regions worldwide, including and , to enhance and adaptability to challenges.

References

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  34. https://pubs.wsu.edu/item/extension-publication-eb2023e-chip-bud-grafting-in-washington-state-vineyards/
  35. https://www.wineenthusiast.com/basics/advanced-studies/napa-valley-phylloxera/
  36. https://thisdayinwinehistory.com/phylloxera-in-the-napa-valley-in-the-1990s/
  37. https://www.vignevin.com/en/article/what-is-clonal-selection/
  38. https://www.oiv.int/node/3149/download/pdf
  39. https://icvg.org/data/2003EppoNappo.pdf
  40. https://ucanr.edu/sites/default/files/2012-04/141544.pdf
  41. https://fps.ucdavis.edu/fgrdetails.cfm?varietyid=356
  42. https://www.winebusiness.com/wbm/article/291492
  43. https://www.plantgrape.fr/en/help/regulation
  44. https://www.bio-conferences.org/articles/bioconf/pdf/2014/02/bioconf_oiv2014_01018.pdf
  45. https://icvg.org/history.cfm
  46. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12321930/
  47. https://www.winebusiness.com/wbm/article/27896
  48. https://www.wineenthusiast.com/culture/wine/cabernet-sauvignon-clones-matter/
  49. https://wineserver.ucdavis.edu/sites/g/files/dgvnsk2676/files/inline-files/Cultivar%20and%20Clone%20Considerations%20GMc..pdf
  50. https://ives-openscience.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Vine_Plant_Material_Roby.pdf
  51. https://dumas.ccsd.cnrs.fr/dumas-04418899/file/2023_Viti-Oeno_Cuny.pdf
  52. https://www.wineenthusiast.com/basics/massal-selection-grapevines/
  53. https://www.ruralnewsgroup.co.nz/wine-grower/wg-general-news/massale-selection-revival-raquel-kallas-nz-viticulture
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