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Falsework
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Falsework consists of temporary structures used in construction to support a permanent structure until its construction is sufficiently advanced to support itself. For arches, this is specifically called centering. Falsework includes temporary support structures for formwork used to mold concrete[1] in the construction of buildings, bridges, and elevated roadways.
The British Standards of practice for falsework, BS 5975:2008, defines falsework as "Any temporary structure used to support a permanent structure while it is not self-supporting."
History
[edit]
Falsework has been employed in bridge and viaduct construction since ancient times. The Romans were renowned for its use, as at the Limyra Bridge in Turkey. Until the turn of the 20th century almost all falsework was constructed from timber. To compensate for timber shortages in different regions and to rationalize labor and material usage, new systems were developed.[2]
The major developments include the design of connection devices (coupler), transitions to other spanning beams such as steel pipes or profiles or reusable timber beams, and adjustable steel props. In 1935 W.A. de Vigier designed an adjustable steel prop which revolutionized many aspects of the construction industry including to support slab formwork, wall formwork, trench sheeting and falsework.[3] Materials from which falsework systems are manufactured have also diversified from traditional steel and timber to aluminium components.
In the UK, BS 5975 gives recommendations for the design and use of falsework on construction sites. It was first introduced by the British Standards Institute in March 1982 and the third version was published in 2008 with Amendment 1 in 2011. The new revisions bring the code up to date with methodology developed in the new CDM 2007 regulations and also the requirements of the new European codes EN 12811-1:2003 Temporary works equipment - Part 1: scaffolds, and EN 12812:2004, falsework - performance requirements and general design.
In modern roadway construction
[edit]-
Fabrication -
Erection -
Placement -
Completed falsework
- Fabrication: Metalworkers fabricate a falsework section from pipe and beams.
- Erection: A section is lifted to a vertical position with the assistance of two forklift operators.
- Placement: The section is guided into position by a ground crew.
- Completed falsework: Decking and some formwork has been added.
The illustrations are of modern pipe-column falsework, used to support the formwork for a post-tensioned reinforced concrete flyover connector for the eastern span replacement of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. When the supports are complete, wood beams and plywood or reusable metal forms will be placed, reinforcing and tenon conduits added, and concrete poured. After curing and any tenon tensioning, wedges will be removed and forms and falsework disassembled.
In bridge construction
[edit]
A certain type of bridge, the self-anchored suspension bridge, must be supported during construction, either by the use of cantilever or suspension methods or by support from below. Support from below was used in the construction of the main span of the eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, using parallel prefabricated truss spans.
Cast in place concrete bridges must also be supported during construction. The new Sixth Street Viaduct in Los Angeles, California, was cast on falsework and then hung on its network tied arch cables. The release of the falsework will coincide with the tensioning of the arch cables.
Typical falsework components
[edit] |
Soffit: Plywood sheeting for walking platform and surface to pour bridge against, typically on top of 4×4 lumber at specified spacing of 12".
Camber: Plywood strips that compensate for beam deflection
Stringer: Steel beam that ties caps together
Top cap: Steel Beam
Post: steel pipe or 12×12 lumber.
Bottom cap: steel beam
Wedge pack: 4×4 lumber cut into wedges for falsework adjustment, various lumber sizes include 2×6s and plywood
Corbel: distribute load to pads. Typical material is 12×12 lumber and steel beams
Pad: distribute load to ground. Most commonly 6×16 lumber.
See also
[edit]- Arch bridge for the use of falsework in bridge construction.
- List of construction methods
References
[edit]- ^ Hardie G.M. (1995) Building Construction: Principles, Practices, and Materials. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. (Pg 116, paragraph 1) ISBN 0133505707
- ^ Burrows, Bryan Godfrey (1989) "Organisation and quality of falsework construction: a socio-economic study of the organisational structure of the construction industry with respect to the falsework production process and the quality of workmanship attained." Ph.D. thesis, University of Warwick.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-11-28. Retrieved 2008-10-04.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ Valley Post Staff (July 5, 2021). "Overnight 5 Freeway Closure Planned In Burbank For Bridge Construction".
- ^ "Burbank Bridge Construction to Shut Down I-5 for Four Nights Beginning July 6". July 1, 2021.
External links
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Media related to Falsework at Wikimedia Commons
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Falsework
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Falsework refers to temporary structures used in construction to support permanent elements, such as formwork for cast-in-place concrete or spanning members like beams and arches, until they become self-supporting and capable of bearing their own weight along with applied loads.[1] These structures are essential in projects where the permanent construction cannot immediately sustain itself, providing vertical and lateral stability during critical phases like concrete pouring and curing.[2]
In construction applications, falsework is commonly employed in the building of bridges, elevated roadways, multi-story buildings, and architectural features such as domes or vaults, where it supports the weight of wet concrete, reinforcement, construction equipment, workers, and environmental loads like wind or seismic forces.[1] It differs from formwork, which shapes the concrete, by primarily providing the underlying support framework to hold formwork in place and distribute loads safely.[3] For instance, in bridge construction, falsework often involves extensive shoring systems to span waterways or valleys until the deck achieves design strength.[2]
Falsework systems typically comprise components such as posts (timber, steel pipe, or adjustable props), beams or stringers, joists, caps and sills, bracing elements, and foundations like timber pads or concrete footings to ensure even load transfer to the ground.[1] Materials used include stress-graded timber for traditional setups, high-strength steel for modular and reusable systems, and aluminum for lightweight applications, selected based on project scale, load requirements, and reusability to optimize cost and efficiency.[2] Modern falsework increasingly incorporates modular and sustainable materials, along with digital design tools, for enhanced efficiency and environmental compliance.[4] Proprietary systems, such as engineered shoring towers, are increasingly favored for their prefabricated design and compliance with modular standards.[5]
Design of falsework follows established engineering principles, often using Allowable Stress Design (ASD) methods to account for dead loads, live loads, and dynamic factors, with bracing provided longitudinally and transversely to prevent buckling or lateral movement.[1] Safety is paramount due to the potential for catastrophic collapse, mandating compliance with regulations like OSHA's standards for cast-in-place concrete, which require formwork and falsework to support all anticipated vertical and lateral loads without failure, along with regular inspections during erection, use, and removal.[6] International codes, such as BS 5975 (2024) in the UK[7] or CSA S269.1 in Canada,[8] emphasize risk assessment, competent engineering oversight, and factors of safety typically ranging from 2.0 to 4.0 depending on load types and durations to mitigate hazards.
Overview
Definition
Falsework refers to temporary structures or frameworks employed in construction to support permanent elements, such as arches, spans, or concrete pours, until they achieve sufficient strength to become self-supporting.[2] These systems bear the loads of fresh materials, equipment, workers, and environmental forces during the construction phase, ensuring stability and precise alignment.[9] Unlike permanent components, falsework is designed for disassembly once its supportive role is fulfilled, distinguishing it as an essential but transient element in building processes.[10] A key distinction exists between falsework and related terms like formwork and shoring. Formwork specifically molds and contains semi-liquid concrete to define its shape until curing, often consisting of panels or molds that create the desired surface finish.[11] In contrast, falsework provides the underlying support for these formworks, handling both horizontal and vertical loads to maintain position and stability. Shoring, meanwhile, focuses primarily on vertical props or braces for uplift or load-bearing, serving as a subset or component of broader falsework systems rather than encompassing the full range of temporary supports.[11] In some regions, such as the United States, the terms falsework and shoring are used interchangeably, though falsework more comprehensively includes horizontal elements like beams and scaffolding.[11] Falsework systems vary widely in scale to accommodate diverse project needs, ranging from simple props supporting individual beams in small-scale building work to extensive scaffold towers or gantry frameworks for multi-span bridges.[2] For instance, modular props might suffice for a single floor slab, while large-scale setups involving steel towers can span hundreds of meters to underpin bridge girders during erection.[12] The term "falsework" originates from the combination of "false," denoting its impermanent and supportive role, and "work," referring to construction activity, with early documented use around 1874.[13] Its historical roots trace to temporary timber frameworks, known as centering, used to support masonry arches until the mortar set, emphasizing the "false" or auxiliary nature of such supports in traditional engineering.[13]Purpose and Basic Principles
Falsework serves as a temporary support system in construction, primarily to bear the weight and forces acting on partially completed permanent structures until they achieve self-sufficiency. Its core purpose is to sustain dead loads, such as the weight of freshly poured concrete, formwork, and reinforcement materials; live loads from construction workers, equipment, and materials; and environmental loads including wind pressures and temperature-induced expansions or contractions during the curing or assembly phases.[14][2] This ensures the integrity of the structure while allowing safe progression of work, particularly in cast-in-place concrete applications where the material must harden without deformation. Standards for loads and criteria vary by jurisdiction, such as minimum live loads of 20 psf in California as of 2025.[14] The basic principles of falsework revolve around effective load distribution and overall stability to prevent failure under combined forces. Vertical props, or posts, transfer vertical loads directly to the ground, while horizontal and diagonal bracing systems provide lateral resistance against buckling or shifting. Foundations, such as timber pads or concrete footings, anchor the system to stable soil or prepared surfaces, distributing the total load without excessive settlement.[14] Stability is maintained until the permanent structure reaches its specified compressive strength, verified through testing such as cylinder tests, at which point the falsework can safely transfer loads.[14][2] For concrete elements, this threshold accounts for curing time and environmental factors to avoid premature collapse. Removal criteria, including strength percentages like 75% in some specifications, may vary by project and location.[15] Removal of falsework follows a staged dismantling process to ensure controlled load transfer to the permanent structure. This begins with verification of the structure's self-supporting capacity by a competent engineer, often using cylinder tests for concrete strength, followed by incremental release via jacks, winches, or cranes to monitor deflections and stresses.[14][2] The process typically proceeds in reverse order of erection, with bracing removed last to preserve stability until full independence is confirmed.[2] Economically, falsework's temporary design offers significant advantages by avoiding the need for permanent structures to be over-engineered for construction-phase loads, which would increase material and fabrication costs. As a reusable system, it can represent 20-30% of the total concrete structure expense in some contexts but ultimately lowers long-term project costs through efficient resource allocation and minimal waste.[16]Historical Development
Ancient and Early Uses
The earliest known uses of temporary support structures trace back to ancient civilizations, where aids like ramps and scaffolding supported monumental construction projects. In ancient Egypt, during the construction of the pyramids at Giza around 2580–2560 BC, workers employed temporary ramps constructed from mudbrick, earth, and rubble to transport and position massive stone blocks. These ramps, sometimes reinforced with timber, facilitated the movement of sleds carrying limestone and granite blocks weighing up to 80 tons. The internal ramp theory, proposed by Jean-Pierre Houdin and supported by microgravimetric surveys and architectural anomalies like a notch at 270 feet on the Great Pyramid's northeast corner, suggests timber elements and possible wooden cranes aided in turning blocks at corners.[17] Roman engineers advanced temporary support techniques significantly in the construction of aqueducts, utilizing timber centering to support arches during masonry placement. The Pont du Gard, completed in the 1st century AD near Nîmes, France, exemplifies this approach; its three tiers of 35 arches, reaching 49 meters in height, were built using temporary wooden falsework to hold voussoir stones in place until the keystone locked the structure. This reusable timber centering allowed for efficient erection of spans up to 24 meters, enabling the aqueduct to span the Gardon River as part of a 50-kilometer water supply system without mortar in the primary arches.[18][19] During the medieval period, particularly in the 12th to 15th centuries, falsework played a crucial role in erecting the ribbed vaults and flying buttresses of Gothic cathedrals. Wooden scaffolds and centering supported the intricate stone vaults during construction, as seen in structures like Chartres Cathedral (built mid-13th century), where temporary timber frameworks bore the weight of voussoir arches until completion. These supports also facilitated the addition of flying buttresses, which transferred lateral thrusts from high vaults to exterior piers, allowing for taller naves and expansive windows. Timber falsework was essential for maintaining alignment in the complex geometry of pointed arches and rib vaults.[20][21] By the 19th century, innovations in materials began to supplement traditional timber falsework in railway infrastructure. For the Britannia Bridge over the Menai Strait, completed in 1850 by Robert Stephenson, temporary wrought-iron tubular struts and brick towers served as supports during the assembly of the main rectangular box-girder spans, marking an early shift toward metallic elements in falsework for viaducts. This approach reduced reliance on wood for larger-scale projects, though timber remained prevalent. However, early falsework systems were limited by their dependence on timber, which was prone to rot from moisture exposure and structural failure under overload, contributing to numerous collapses in historical construction sites.[22][23]Modern Advancements
In the early 20th century, falsework transitioned from predominantly timber-based systems to more engineered metal solutions, with the introduction of adjustable steel props marking a pivotal advancement. In 1935, Swiss engineer William A. de Vigier invented the Acrow prop, a telescopically adjustable steel support that provided superior stability, ease of adjustment, and reusability compared to wooden alternatives, fundamentally improving efficiency in supporting formwork and scaffolding during construction.[24] This innovation addressed limitations in load distribution and height variability, enabling safer and faster erection of temporary structures. Following World War II, modular scaffolding systems gained standardization, particularly in the United States through the Interstate Highway program, where national standards facilitated scalable, prefabricated components for large-scale bridge and highway falsework, reducing on-site fabrication time and enhancing consistency across projects.[25][26] Mid-20th-century developments further refined falsework precision and assembly speed. The 1960s saw the widespread adoption of hydraulic jacks for controlled load transfer, allowing engineers to incrementally adjust supports under live loads with minimal risk of collapse, a critical improvement for complex concrete pours in bridges and buildings.[27] Concurrently, prefabricated aluminum systems emerged as lightweight alternatives to steel and timber, offering rapid assembly—often 50% faster than traditional methods—and corrosion resistance, which minimized maintenance and enabled multiple reuses on projects.[28] From the late 20th century into the 21st, digital and eco-conscious innovations transformed falsework design and sustainability. Starting in the 1990s, computer-aided design (CAD) tools integrated load simulation capabilities, enabling virtual modeling of stress distributions and failure modes to optimize falsework layouts before physical erection, significantly reducing material overuse and erection errors.[29] Sustainable practices advanced with the incorporation of recycled steel in falsework components, which lowers embodied carbon by up to 70% compared to virgin steel while maintaining structural integrity, aligning with broader environmental regulations in construction.[30] The Øresund Bridge project, completed in 2000, utilized advanced formwork and temporary support systems for the in-situ construction of its cable-stayed pylons.[31] Regulatory frameworks also drove global standardization during this period. The UK's BS 5975 code of practice for temporary works, first published in 1982 following major falsework collapses, was revised significantly in 2019 (and further in 2024, splitting into procedural and design parts), establishing permissible stress design principles and management procedures for falsework, promoting reusable and lightweight systems that influenced international practices by emphasizing procedural controls, risk assessment, and modular compatibility to enhance safety and efficiency.[32] In the 2010s and beyond, Building Information Modeling (BIM) became integral to falsework design, allowing 3D simulations and clash detection for complex temporary structures, further improving safety and efficiency in projects like high-rise buildings and long-span bridges as of 2025.[33]Applications in Construction
Bridge Construction
Falsework plays a critical role in bridge construction by providing temporary support for structural elements until they achieve self-sufficiency, particularly in spanning water or elevated terrains. For short spans under 50 meters, such as beam bridges, full-span falsework systems are commonly employed, utilizing timber or steel bents, posts, and stringers to support the entire deck or girder length during concrete pouring and curing. These systems distribute loads evenly across foundations like mudsills or piles, ensuring stability for spans limited to approximately L = 8.5T + 14 feet, where T is the girder depth.[34] In contrast, partial support methods are preferred for longer or complex spans, including cable-stayed or braced systems during incremental launching, where temporary towers or guys limit support to key points, minimizing material use and allowing staged erection.[35] Erection techniques vary by bridge type to accommodate geometric and load demands. For arch bridges, tower-based systems form the core of falsework, consisting of multi-tiered steel or timber frames that support voussoirs—pre-shaped arch stones or segments—progressing from abutments toward the keystone, with cable bracing to counter lateral thrusts until the arch closes and becomes self-supporting.[34] In balanced cantilever construction, underslung gantries or form travelers provide partial support, enabling sequential segment placement from piers outward in alternating arms, often using hydraulic jacks for alignment and prestressing to manage unbalanced moments without full-span shoring below.[36] These methods reduce reliance on ground-based supports, facilitating construction over obstacles like rivers. Historical incidents underscore the risks in bridge falsework, informing modern practices. The 1970 West Gate Bridge collapse in Australia, during box girder erection, resulted from inadequate stability in temporary supports under compressive loads, leading to buckling and 35 fatalities; this event highlighted the need for robust bracing and load sequencing, influencing global standards like BS 5975 for falsework design.[37] The 1997 Confederation Bridge in Canada used balanced cantilever erection of precast segments with a specialized gantry system to handle harsh marine conditions, demonstrating effective partial support for long spans in dynamic environments.[38] Bridge-specific challenges amplify falsework demands, including high elevations requiring cable bracing for wind stability (minimum 2% of dead load horizontal force), proximity to water necessitating pile bents resistant to scour and stream flows (P_w = K v^2, where v is velocity), and dynamic loads from construction traffic or detours, which demand impact factors up to 2000 pounds at post bases and deflection limits of L/240 of the span.[34][35]Roadway and Building Construction
In roadway construction, falsework provides essential temporary support for elevated slabs, ramps, and overpasses, particularly in multi-level interchanges where shoring towers bear vertical loads from concrete placement until the structure achieves self-supporting strength. These systems, often comprising heavy-duty steel shoring towers with capacities up to 100 kips per leg, are designed to handle minimum total loads of 100 pounds per square foot, including dead and live loads, while limiting deflections to L/240 to ensure alignment and stability. Modern systems increasingly incorporate sensors for real-time monitoring to enhance safety, as seen in recent U.S. highway projects (as of 2023).[34] For instance, in California's highway projects, such as multi-tiered bents in interchanges, modular towers with cable bracing resist overturning moments and transmit loads to stable foundations, with soil bearing capacities typically ranging from 2000 to 4000 pounds per square foot.[34] Integration with ongoing traffic flow is a critical consideration, requiring falsework over or adjacent to roadways to incorporate enhanced design loads—such as 150% of calculated post loads—and horizontal forces equivalent to 2% of the total dead load to account for potential impacts. Temporary lane supports, including traffic braces and mechanical connections like stringers with capacities up to 5000 pounds at 30-degree angles, ensure stability without disrupting vehicular movement, with mandatory clearances and lighting plans to maintain safety. Foundations, whether continuous pads or piles, are analyzed for settlement limits of ±3/8 inch to prevent disruptions in high-traffic urban settings.[34] In building construction, falsework supports floor-by-floor propping in high-rises, where back-propping distributes loads from newly cast concrete slabs across multiple levels to avoid overloading individual floors, as recently completed slabs can only safely bear 70% of the new load in a one-level system or 65% in a two-level configuration. This technique transfers the majority of the construction load—typically 70% to the supporting slab and 30% to props in simplified methods—to lower, hardened levels, ensuring the structure's permanent elements handle temporary stresses without excessive deflection. Wall form support during concrete pours relies on vertical props or scaffold poles with adjustable heights and load-spreading plates to brace formwork against lateral pressures, maintaining alignment for vertical elements like shear walls.[12] Flying form systems, also known as table forms, enable efficient construction of repetitive building floors by using large pre-assembled units that form complete bays of suspended slabs, incorporating reusable panels supported by props and trusses for quick repositioning via cranes. These systems facilitate high-quality finishes and reduced labor through ground-level assembly and non-slip decking with guard rails, ideal for flat slabs in residential or commercial high-rises where precise adjustments minimize joints and infill areas. Slip-form falsework, employed for vertical elements such as silos, involves continuously lifting 4- to 6-foot-high forms at rates of 16 to 24 inches per hour using hydraulic jacks on embedded steel rods, with yokes and wales providing temporary support to shape and contain concrete until it hardens, achieving monolithic structures with minimal joints.[39][40] Unique to building applications, falsework must address fire resistance due to combustible materials like plywood and oil-based release agents, which can ignite at temperatures as low as 450-600°F and lead to structural collapse under uncured concrete loads (~4000 pounds per cubic yard). Steel components in these systems fail around 1000°F, necessitating strict housekeeping to avoid storage of flammables and ensuring props are designed with smaller safety factors than permanent structures to mitigate risks during curing.[41]Components and Materials
Key Structural Components
Falsework systems consist of interconnected vertical and horizontal elements that provide temporary support during construction, ensuring stability until the permanent structure can bear its own loads. These components are designed for efficient assembly and disassembly, allowing adaptation to various project scales. Primary elements include vertical supports for load transfer, horizontal members for distribution and bracing, foundational bases to interface with the ground, and modular connections that enable scalable configurations.[34] Vertical elements, such as props, posts, and jacks, form the primary load-bearing supports by transferring vertical forces from the structure above to the foundation below. Props and posts are plumb, centered members that resist compressive loads, with steel variants like pipes or wide-flange sections commonly used for their strength and inspectability against distortion. Jacks, including screw or sand types, provide adjustable height and fine-tuned load distribution, often placed on corbels for controlled settlement. A representative example is the Acrow prop, a telescopic steel adjustable support with inner and outer tubes that extends up to 4 meters, facilitating temporary propping in formwork applications.[34][34][42] Horizontal elements encompass beams, ledgers, bracing, and transoms, which distribute loads across the system and enhance lateral stability. Beams and stringers span between vertical supports to carry deck or formwork loads, while ledgers connect posts horizontally to maintain alignment. Bracing, often in diagonal "X" configurations, counters horizontal forces and prevents buckling. Transoms, functioning as cross-members in scaffold tower setups, support load distribution by bridging ledgers and accommodating working platforms or formwork.[34][34][43] The base and foundation components, including mud sills and base plates, ensure even load transfer to the ground and minimize settlement risks. Mud sills, typically timber pads like 6x12 sections, spread loads over soft soil, while base plates—often steel—provide firm contact at post bases on concrete or compacted surfaces. Tie-ins, such as mechanical clamps or cable connections to the permanent structure, secure the falsework against lateral movement and impacts.[34][34][34] Assembly of falsework relies on modular connections via couplers, pins, or bolts, which allow rapid interconnection of components into scalable networks. These standardized fasteners, such as 5/8-inch bolts for bracing or coupling pins for frames, enable stacking of towers from single bays to extensive support grids, promoting reusability across projects. In early applications, timber equivalents used similar pinned joints, though modern steel systems offer greater adjustability.[34][34]Materials and Selection Criteria
Falsework structures commonly employ steel, timber, and aluminum as primary materials, each selected for specific structural roles in temporary support systems. Steel, often in the form of wide-flange beams (e.g., W14x53 or W14x176 sections) or tubular pipes, provides high strength for posts, caps, and bracing in heavy-load applications such as bridge construction. Timber, typically Douglas Fir-Larch graded #1 or #2 in dimensions like 12x12 rough-sawn posts or 2x8 surfaced-four-sides stringers, serves as a versatile option for short-term bents, joists, and pads due to its availability and workability. Aluminum is utilized in lightweight proprietary shoring posts and mobile systems, though its application is restricted over or adjacent to roadways and railroads to ensure safety.[34][5] Material selection in falsework prioritizes load capacity, corrosion resistance, and reusability to match project demands like span length, environmental exposure, and economic constraints. For load capacity, steel is favored in heavy-span scenarios due to its high allowable bending stress (up to 0.55 times yield strength, Fy) and capacity to support up to 100 kips per tower leg, while timber is limited to lower loads with adjusted bending values around 850-875 psi depending on size and duration. Corrosion resistance guides choices in harsh environments, such as marine settings, where galvanized steel or regular inspections for rust are required to maintain integrity. Reusability influences decisions for modular systems, with aluminum highly reusable in mobile shoring due to its durability and ease of handling, compared to timber's single-use tendency in non-recoverable setups.[34][5] Emerging materials include structural composite lumber (SCL), such as laminated veneer lumber (LVL) or parallel strand lumber (PSL), which offer enhanced uniformity and strength over traditional timber for beams and other horizontal elements, with restrictions on use as posts in certain applications such as over roadways; these support sustainability through efficient resource use. Fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs), like glass or carbon variants, are gaining traction in specialized falsework for their vibration damping properties and lightweight design, particularly in stay-in-place or bio-based composite systems for shell structures. Recycled content is increasingly incorporated, such as in steel from post-consumer sources or engineered wood with sustainable fibers, to reduce environmental impact while maintaining performance.[34][44][45] The trade-offs among materials are summarized below, balancing performance, cost, and practicality:| Material | Pros | Cons |
|---|---|---|
| Steel | High load capacity; durable and highly reusable in proprietary systems; suitable for long spans | Higher initial cost; potential corrosion requiring treatment or inspection; heavier weight increases handling effort |
| Timber | Cost-effective; easy to cut, shape, and install on-site; widely available | Lower load capacity; susceptible to decay and limited reusability; variable strength due to natural defects |
| Aluminum | Lightweight for mobile and quick-assembly systems; corrosion-resistant; highly reusable (often hundreds of times with proper maintenance) | Restricted use in high-risk areas; lower stiffness than steel for very heavy loads; higher cost per unit weight |