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Hypermedia
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Hypermedia, an extension of hypertext, is a nonlinear medium of information that includes graphics, audio, video, plain text and hyperlinks. This designation contrasts with the broader term multimedia, which may include non-interactive linear presentations as well as hypermedia. The term was first used in a 1965 article written by Ted Nelson.[1][2] Hypermedia is a type of multimedia that features interactive elements, such as hypertext, buttons, or interactive images and videos, allowing users to navigate and engage with content in a non-linear manner.

The World Wide Web is a classic example of hypermedia to access web content, whereas a conventional cinema presentation is an example of standard multimedia, due to its inherent linearity and lack of interactivity via hyperlinks.

The first hypermedia work was, arguably, the Aspen Movie Map. Bill Atkinson's HyperCard popularized hypermedia writing, while a variety of literary hypertext and non-fiction hypertext works (electronic literature), demonstrated the promise of hyperlinks. Most modern hypermedia is delivered via electronic pages from a variety of systems including media players, web browsers, and stand-alone applications (i.e., software that does not require network access). Audio hypermedia is emerging with voice command devices and voice browsing.[3]

Development tools

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Hypermedia may be developed in a number of ways. Any programming tool can be used to write programs that link data from internal variables and nodes for external data files. Multimedia development software such as Adobe Flash, Adobe Director, Macromedia Authorware, and MatchWare Mediator may be used to create stand-alone hypermedia applications, with emphasis on entertainment content. Some database software, such as Visual FoxPro and FileMaker Developer, may be used to develop stand-alone hypermedia applications, with emphasis on educational and business content management.

Hypermedia applications may be developed on embedded devices for the mobile and the digital signage industries using the Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) specification from W3C (World Wide Web Consortium). Software applications, such as Ikivo Animator and Inkscape, simplify the development of hypermedia content based on SVG. Embedded devices, such as the iPhone, natively support SVG specifications and may be used to create mobile and distributed hypermedia applications.

Hyperlinks may also be added to data files using most business software via the limited scripting and hyperlinking features built in. Documentation software, such as the Microsoft Office Suite and LibreOffice, allow for hypertext links to other content within the same file, other external files, and URL links to files on external file servers. For more emphasis on graphics and page layout, hyperlinks may be added using most modern desktop publishing tools. This includes presentation programs, such as Microsoft PowerPoint and LibreOffice Impress, add-ons to print layout programs such as Quark Immedia, and tools to include hyperlinks in PDF documents such as Adobe InDesign for creating and Adobe Acrobat for editing. Hyper Publish is a tool specifically designed and optimized for hypermedia and hypertext management. Any HTML editor may be used to build HTML files, accessible by any web browser. CD/DVD authoring tools, such as DVD Studio Pro, may be used to hyperlink the content of DVDs for DVD players or web links when the disc is played on a personal computer connected to the internet.

Learning

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There have been a number of theories concerning hypermedia and learning. One important claim in the literature on hypermedia and learning is that it offers more control over the instructional environment for the reader or student.[citation needed] Another claim is that it levels the playing field among students of varying abilities and enhances collaborative learning.[citation needed] A claim from psychology includes the notion that hypermedia more closely models the structure of the brain, in comparison with printed text.[4]

Application programming interfaces

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Hypermedia is used as a medium and constraint in certain application programming interfaces. HATEOAS, Hypermedia as the Engine of Application State, is a constraint of the REST application architecture where a client interacts with the server entirely through hypermedia provided dynamically by application servers. This means that in theory no API documentation is needed, because the client needs no prior knowledge about how to interact with any particular application or server beyond a generic understanding of hypermedia. In other service-oriented architectures (SOA), clients and servers interact through a fixed interface shared through documentation or an interface description language (IDL).

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Hypermedia

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Hypermedia is a nonlinear extension of hypertext that integrates diverse media elements—including text, images, audio, video, graphics, and animations—interconnected through hyperlinks, allowing users to navigate and interact with information in a non-sequential manner. Coined by computer scientist in 1965, the concept builds on his earlier vision of hypertext as branching, reader-controlled structures for complex information organization, as detailed in his seminal paper "A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate." This foundational idea evolved from Vannevar Bush's 1945 proposal for the , a hypothetical device for associative information trails, marking the conceptual origins of linked knowledge systems. The development of hypermedia gained momentum in the late 20th century through pioneering systems like Douglas Engelbart's NLS (oN-Line System) in 1968, which demonstrated interactive linking of multimedia elements, and Nelson's ambitious but unrealized Xanadu project, aimed at creating a global, versioned hypermedia repository. By the 1990s, hypermedia became integral to the , invented by in 1989, where documents embed hyperlinks to multimedia resources accessible via HTTP and URLs, transforming it into the dominant platform for information dissemination. In modern contexts, hypermedia principles underpin web applications, educational tools, and RESTful APIs, notably through (Hypermedia as the Engine of Application State), which embeds navigational controls in API responses to enable dynamic client-server interactions without hardcoded endpoints. Key characteristics of hypermedia include its , where users control navigation paths; multimodality, supporting synchronized presentation of media types; and , facilitating vast networks of linked content for collaborative and exploratory use. Applications span , where hypermedia systems enhance learning through adaptive, learner-centered environments; scientific , such as interactive reports integrating diagrams and simulations; and web services, driving the and systems. Despite challenges like disorientation in large networks (known as the "lost in hyperspace" problem), hypermedia remains a cornerstone of digital , influencing everything from e-books to experiences.

Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Hypermedia refers to a form of in which various elements—such as text, images, audio, video, and graphics—are interconnected through links that enable non-linear and user-driven of . This structure allows users to traverse content associatively, rather than following a fixed sequence, fostering interactive experiences that extend beyond traditional linear media. The term "hypermedia" was coined by Theodor Holm Nelson in his 1965 paper, "Complex Information Processing: A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate," as an extension of hypertext to incorporate non-textual media, exemplified by concepts like "hyperfilm" for variably sequenced movies. At its core, hypermedia embodies three key principles: non-linearity, which permits branching paths through content; associativity, where links reflect conceptual relationships determined by creators or users; and , integrating diverse sensory formats to enrich representation and interaction. The scope of hypermedia encompasses digital systems that dynamically link multimedia components to support advanced interactivity, surpassing static documents by enabling personalized paths and multimedia synthesis. Representative examples include early CD-ROM encyclopedias like Microsoft's , which combined searchable text with embedded audio, video, and animations navigable via hyperlinks, and modern interactive websites that leverage these principles for immersive user experiences. As a foundational concept, hypermedia builds on hypertext as its textual precursor while powering applications like the .

Relation to Hypertext

Hypertext refers to non-linear networks of text linked by associations, enabling users to navigate information through associative trails rather than sequential reading. This concept was first envisioned by in his 1945 article "," where he described the , a hypothetical device for storing and linking personal records, books, and communications via microfilm and mechanical selectors to create reusable "trails" of related information. The term "hypertext" was later coined by in 1965 to denote a computerized system for branching and joining text units, as part of his , which aimed to create a global, non-sequential repository of evolving documents with embedded links. Hypermedia extends hypertext by generalizing its linking principles to encompass multimedia elements, allowing navigation across diverse formats such as text, , , and video. Nelson also introduced the term "hypermedia" in to describe this broader application, where hyperlinks connect not just textual nodes but also non-textual media to form integrated, interactive experiences. Unlike hypertext, which is confined to textual content and static graphics, hypermedia supports dynamic, sensory-rich interactions, such as embedding audio clips within linked documents or enabling video-based associations, thereby enhancing user engagement through multimodal pathways. The conceptual evolution from hypertext to hypermedia built on early systems like the Hypertext Editing System (HES), developed in 1967–1968 at , which provided the first practical implementation of linked text editing and retrieval on commercial hardware, laying the groundwork for non-linear information structures. By the , hypermedia emerged more prominently with tools like Apple's , released in 1987, which allowed users to create interconnected "stacks" of cards incorporating text, images, and basic animations, marking a shift toward accessible multimedia authoring and influencing subsequent digital environments.

Historical Development

Origins in Hypertext

The concept of hypermedia traces its origins to early visions of associative , most notably articulated by in his 1945 essay "," where he proposed the —a hypothetical device for storing and retrieving microfilm-based documents through associative trails that linked related ideas non-sequentially. This idea laid foundational groundwork for hypertext as the direct precursor to hypermedia, emphasizing human-like cognition in navigating interconnected knowledge. In the 1960s, formalized these concepts by coining the terms "hypertext" and "hypermedia" in the early 1960s, first published in 1965 to describe non-linear text and linked by associations, envisioning systems where documents could interconnect dynamically. 's , initiated around 1960, was one of the earliest conceptual designs for a hypertext system, aiming for "transclusive" linking that allowed visible, bidirectional connections between documents while preserving originals through versioning and micropayments for reuse. Early practical implementations emerged soon after, with Doug Engelbart's oN-Line System (NLS) demonstrated in 1968 at the Fall Joint Computer Conference, introducing mouse-driven hypertext linking, on-screen text manipulation, and collaborative editing over networks. Concurrently, and his students at developed the Hypertext Editing System (HES) from 1967 to 1969, recognized as the first hypertext editor, which enabled users to create, link, and navigate structured text files on an IBM 360 mainframe. The transition toward hypermedia began in the 1970s with early hypertext systems like the ZOG system developed in 1972 at by Donald McCracken and Robert Akscyn, which used frame-based navigation for text-based access. Graphics integration advanced in successor systems such as KMS (Knowledge Management System) in 1983.

Key Milestones and Evolution

The development of hypermedia gained significant momentum in the late 1980s with the introduction of Apple in 1987, created by for the Macintosh platform. This tool revolutionized personal computing by enabling users to build interactive applications through a card-based interface that supported navigation via hyperlinks, integration of text, images, graphics, and sound, and simple scripting with language, making hypermedia accessible to non-programmers. A pivotal advancement occurred in when launched the at , utilizing as the foundational to facilitate hypermedia distribution over the internet. This innovation allowed seamless integration of hypertext links with multimedia elements like images and later audio/video, transforming hypermedia from isolated desktop applications into a globally networked medium accessible via web browsers. The saw expansions into more immersive and -rich formats, exemplified by the proposal of (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) in 1994 at the first World Wide Web Conference. extended hypermedia to three-dimensional environments, enabling the description of interactive 3D scenes with hyperlinks for navigation within web-based virtual worlds. Concurrently, Director, evolving from its 1987 origins, became a dominant authoring tool in the for creating interactive titles that combined animations, video, sound, and user-controlled navigation, powering much of the era's multimedia entertainment and educational content. In the 2000s, hypermedia evolved toward dynamic and API-driven systems, with the coining of AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) in 2005 by Jesse James Garrett, which enabled real-time updates to web pages without full reloads, enhancing interactive hypermedia experiences through client-side scripting and server communication. This period also marked the formalization of ful architectures with hypermedia constraints, as outlined in Roy Fielding's 2000 dissertation, emphasizing (Hypermedia as the Engine of Application State) where APIs provide dynamic navigational links; an example is the HAL (Hypertext Application Language) format introduced in 2011 to standardize JSON-based hypermedia representations in REST services. By the and into the , hypermedia shifted from standalone and local systems to networked, cloud-based paradigms, driven by advancements in web standards that supported scalable, distributed content delivery. This evolution addressed challenges like and by leveraging cloud infrastructure for hosting dynamic hypermedia, culminating in immersive extensions such as , which reached Candidate Recommendation status in 2022 under W3C and remains in Candidate Recommendation Draft as of 2025, allowing browser-based access to AR and VR environments with hyperlinked 3D interactions.

Core Components

Media Integration

Hypermedia systems incorporate a diverse array of media types to create rich, interactive experiences, including text for content, raster images such as or for photographic representations, vector images like for scalable graphics, audio in waveform formats (e.g., ) or symbolic notations (e.g., ) for sound reproduction, video streams in formats like MPEG or modern containers such as MP4 with codecs including H.264, H.265/HEVC, or for efficient motion sequences, and interactive elements such as animations or simulations that respond to user input. Integration of these media types occurs through embedding mechanisms and synchronization protocols that allow seamless combination within a single document or presentation. For instance, in modern , dedicated elements such as the <video> and <audio> tags provide native support for embedding and controlling , while the <img> tag handles images; these enable inclusion in hypermedia documents with broad browser compatibility without proprietary plugins. The legacy <object> tag from 4.01 can also serve as a general container but is less commonly used today. Synchronization is achieved using standards like the (SMIL), introduced by the W3C in 1998, which defines temporal behaviors for coordinating media playback, such as aligning audio narration with video segments or triggering animations at specified times; however, as of 2025, SMIL support in web browsers is limited and declining, with alternatives like APIs (e.g., ) or often preferred for dynamic synchronization. Challenges in media integration arise from technical constraints, particularly bandwidth management for handling large multimedia files during transmission and storage, which can lead to delays in loading or playback on resource-limited devices. Cross-platform compatibility poses another issue, as differing device capabilities and codec support—such as the widespread —require adaptations to ensure consistent rendering across desktops, mobiles, and kiosks. Examples of effective integration include layered models, where media components are organized in hierarchical structures to facilitate composition, such as overlaying interactive annotations on video streams to enhance navigability without disrupting the primary content. In educational hypermedia, this approach manifests in video annotations that layer textual explanations or simulations atop footage, allowing learners to access supplementary media triggered by timeline events for deeper engagement. The serves as a primary platform for such integrations, with linking mechanisms connecting disparate media elements into cohesive experiences.

Linking and Navigation Structures

Linking in hypermedia systems facilitates the interconnection of multimedia nodes, allowing users to navigate through information spaces via explicit connections that transcend linear sequences. These links typically connect anchors—specific segments within nodes—to enable targeted traversal, supporting both exploratory browsing and structured access. The underlying models emphasize flexibility, with navigation driven by user interactions or predefined paths, ensuring that hypermedia remains extensible and adaptable to diverse applications. Hypermedia supports various link types to accommodate different relational needs. Unidirectional links, common in early systems like those modeled after anchors, permit navigation solely from a source to a target, establishing one-way associations between media elements. Bidirectional links extend this by allowing traversal in both directions, often involving multiple sources and targets; for instance, they enable associations between resources, selectors, and other links, as implemented in metamodels like RSL for cross-media environments. Contextual links, such as typed links in RDF-based systems, incorporate semantic metadata to qualify relationships, using URIs to denote specific predicates like "relatedTo" or "partOf," thereby enhancing machine-readable in contexts. Backlinks, as in systems, provide reverse by automatically generating references from targets back to sources, fostering collaborative maintenance of interconnections. Navigation models in hypermedia rely on foundational paradigms to guide user movement. The node-link graph model represents information as directed graphs, where nodes encapsulate media content and links define traversable edges, supporting arbitrary topologies for free-form exploration; this paradigm underpins many systems, including Dexter and KMS, by treating links as first-class entities for relational querying. , conceptualized by , enables inclusion by reference without duplication, allowing dynamic embedding of content from one node into another via stable identifiers, thus unifying disparate documents while preserving original versioning and authorship. Path-based complements these by defining guided tours—linear or branched sequences of links—for structured journeys, such as scripted sequences in educational hypermedia that sequence nodes with optional annotations to mitigate disorientation. Media elements can serve as link endpoints in these models, integrating visuals or audio as navigational anchors. Hypermedia structures organize links into patterns that influence . Hierarchical structures adopt tree-like organizations, with parent-child links forming relationships, as in KMS frames where subordinate nodes inherit context from superiors to simplify access in domain-specific corpora. Networked structures employ graph-based models, permitting cyclic and many-to-many connections for complex, associative knowledge representation, enabling emergent discoveries through breadth or depth traversals. Spatial structures, particularly in virtual reality hypermedia, leverage positional cues and visual layouts to imply links, as in systems like VIKI where proximity and attributes denote relations without explicit anchors, supporting immersive 3D in collaborative or exploratory settings. Technical implementation of links in hypermedia centers on resolution and robustness. URI/URL schemes provide universal identifiers for link targets, with resolution involving parsing the scheme, , and path to retrieve resources via protocols like HTTP, ensuring decentralized access across distributed systems. Handling broken links—arising from resource relocation or deletion—typically invokes error states, such as 404 responses, or fallbacks like automated redirection or suggestion mechanisms; integrity maintenance protocols, including periodic validation or recommendation systems, proactively repair disruptions by proposing alternative URIs based on . APIs may dynamically generate links at runtime, adapting to context without altering core structures.

Applications

In the World Wide Web

Hypermedia forms the foundational structure of the , primarily through , which evolved from its initial version in 1991 to enable interconnected documents with multimedia elements. The initial version of , proposed by at , provided basic hypertext capabilities using the element for hyperlinks, allowing users to navigate between documents via anchors. Over time, subsequent versions expanded support for embedded media; for instance, in 1995 standardized image inclusion with the tag, while in 1997 introduced the element for richer multimedia like plugins, with in 1999 providing a revised version. The advent of in 2014 marked a significant advancement, natively supporting video and audio embedding via

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