Respect all members: no insults, harassment, or hate speech.
Be tolerant of different viewpoints, cultures, and beliefs. If you do not agree with others, just create separate note, article or collection.
Clearly distinguish between personal opinion and fact.
Verify facts before posting, especially when writing about history, science, or statistics.
Promotional content must be published on the “Related Services and Products” page—no more than one paragraph per service. You can also create subpages under the “Related Services and Products” page and publish longer promotional text there.
Do not post materials that infringe on copyright without permission.
Always credit sources when sharing information, quotes, or media.
Be respectful of the work of others when making changes.
Discuss major edits instead of removing others' contributions without reason.
If you notice rule-breaking, notify community about it in talks.
Do not share personal data of others without their consent.
Kaypro Corporation was an American home and personal computer manufacturer based in Solana Beach, California, in the 1980s. The company was founded by Non-Linear Systems (NLS) to compete with the popular Osborne 1 portable microcomputer. Kaypro produced a line of rugged, luggableCP/M-based computers sold with an extensive software bundle which supplanted its competitors and quickly became one of the top-selling personal computer lines of the early 1980s.
Kaypro was exceptionally loyal to its original customer base but slow to adapt to the changing computer market and the advent of IBM PC compatible technology. It faded from the mainstream before the end of the decade and was eventually forced into bankruptcy in 1992.
In the 1970s, NLS was an early adopter of microprocessor technology, which enhanced the flexibility of products such as production-line test sets. In 1981, Non-Linear Systems began designing a personal computer, called KayComp, that would compete with the popular Osborne 1luggable microcomputer. In 1982, Non-Linear Systems organized Kaypro Corporation as a daughter company.[citation needed] The company stated at the April 1982 West Coast Computer Faire that it had 20 dealers, would not use its existing test-equipment distributors, received $50,000 in orders every day, and expected to start shipping the computer on 20 May.[3]
Boy with Kaypro II, 1984
The first Kaypro model to be released commercially was branded as the Kaypro II; at the time, one of the most popular microcomputers was the Apple II. The Kaypro II was designed to be portable like the Osborne, contained in a single enclosure with a handle for carrying.[a] Set in an aluminum case, with a keyboard that snapped onto the front, covering the 9" CRT display and drives, it weighed 29 pounds (13 kg) and was equipped with a Zilog Z80microprocessor, 64 kilobytes of RAM, and two 5¼-inch double-density single-sided floppy disk drives. It ran Digital Research, Inc.'sCP/M operating system, the industry standard for 8-bit computers with 8080 or Z80 CPUs, and sold for about US$1,795 (equivalent to $5,800 in 2024).[citation needed]
The company advertised the Kaypro II as "the $1,595 computer that sells for $1,595".[4] Although some of the press mocked its design—one magazine described Kaypro as "producing computers packaged in tin cans"[5]—others raved about its value, noting that the included software bundle had a retail value over $1,000 by itself, and by mid-1983 the company was selling more than 10,000 units a month, briefly making it the fifth-largest computer maker in the world.[citation needed]
The Kaypro II was part of a new generation of consumer-friendly personal computers that were designed to appeal to novice users who wanted to perform basic productivity on a machine that was relatively easy to set up and use. It managed to correct most of the Osborne 1's deficiencies: the screen was larger and showed more characters at once, the floppy drives stored over twice as much data, and it was better-built and more reliable.[citation needed]
Computers such as the Kaypro II were widely referred to as "appliance" or "turnkey" machines; they offered little in the way of expandability or features that would interest hackers or electronics hobbyists and were mainly characterized by their affordable price and a collection of bundled software. While it was easy to obtain and use new software with the Kaypro II—there were thousands of application programs available for CP/M, and every Kaypro 8-bit computer had a full 64 KB of RAM, enough to run virtually any CP/M program—the hardware expandability of this computer was nearly nonexistent. The Kaypro II had no expansion slots or system bus connector, no spare ROM socket, no peripheral bus, only two I/O ports,[b] and an ASCII text-only green-on-black video display, of 80 x 24 characters, that could only be shown on the internal 9" CRT monitor (despite the video being scanned at NTSC TV-compatible rates).[citation needed]
In contrast, one feature that was favorable to electronics hobbyists was that all the chips on the Kaypro II mainboard were installed in sockets, not soldered to the board, making it easy to repair the machines or even to splice custom circuits into the stock logic (temporarily or permanently). Also, while Kaypro machines were generally not upgradeable without factory-unauthorized custom modification, some Kaypro computers that came with single-sided floppy disk drives could be upgraded to double-sided drives, and some that came with only one floppy drive could have a second drive added. (The Kaypro II itself was upgradeable, or not, to double-sided drives depending on which of two possible mainboard types was installed in the machine).[c]
Despite their limitations, the boxy units were so popular that they spawned a network of hobbyist user groups across the United States that provided local support for Kaypro products; the company worked with the user groups and would have a salesman drop by if in the area.[citation needed]
Kaypro's success contributed to the eventual failure of the Osborne Computer Corporation and Morrow Designs. A more rugged seeming, "industrialized" design than competitors such as the Osborne made the Kaypro popular for commercial/industrial applications. Its RS-232 port was widely used by service technicians for on-site equipment configuration, control and diagnostics. The relatively high quality of mechanical fabrication seen in the aluminum-cased Kaypro 8-bit computers was a natural outgrowth of NLS's prior business building professional and industrial electronic test instruments.[citation needed]
The version of CP/M included with the Kaypro could also read the Xerox 810's single-sided, single-density 86k floppy format. The Kaypro 8-bit computers used the popular Western Digital FD1793 floppy disk controller; the Kaypro II, 4, 10, and similar models were capable of reading and/or writing any disk format that the FD1793 could read and/or write (at 250 kbit/s). Theoretically, any soft-sector MFM or FM floppy format that is within the limits of the FD1793[d] could be read or written if the user wrote their own utility program.[citation needed]
Kaypro published and subsidized ProFiles: The Magazine for Kaypro Users, a monthly, 72-page, four-color magazine that went beyond coverage of Kaypro's products to include substantive information on CP/M and MS-DOS; frequent contributors included Ted Chiang, David Gerrold, Robert J. Sawyer, and Ted Silveira.[7] Keeping its namesake, the publication profiled Kaypro founder Andrew Kay and software engineer Stephen Buccaci.[8]
Arthur C. Clarke used a Kaypro II to write and collaboratively edit (via modem from Sri Lanka) his 1982 novel 2010: Odyssey Two and the later film adaptation.[10][11][12] A book, The Odyssey File - The Making of 2010, was later released about the collaboration.
Following the success of the Kaypro II, Kaypro moved on to produce a long line of similar computers into the mid-1980s. Exceedingly loyal to its original core group of customers, Kaypro continued using the CP/M operating system long after it had been abandoned by its competitors.
In late 1984, Kaypro introduced its first IBM PC compatible, the Kaypro 16 transportable. While admitting that "it's what our dealers asked for", the company stated that it would continue to produce its older computers.[13] This was followed by other PC compatibles: the Kaypro PC, Kaypro 286i (the first 286IBM PC AT compatible),[14] the Kaypro 386, and the Kaypro 2000 (a rugged aluminum-body battery-powered laptop with a detachable keyboard). The slow start into the IBM clone market would have serious ramifications for the company.
After several turbulent years, with sales dwindling, Kaypro filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in March 1990.[15] Despite restructuring, the company was unable to recover and filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in June 1992. In 1995, its remaining assets were sold for US$2.7 million.[16]
The Kaypro name briefly re-emerged as an online vendor of Microsoft Windows PCs in 1999, but was discontinued in 2001 by its parent company Premio Inc. because of sluggish sales.[17]
A Kaypro II displaying the Kaypro Wikipedia page using Lynx over a serial connectionA Kaypro II motherboard
The Kaypro II has a 2.5 MHz Zilog Z80 microprocessor; 64 KB of RAM; two single-sided 191 KB 5¼-inch floppy disk drives (named A: and B:); and an 80-column, green monochrome, 9" CRT that was praised for its size and clarity (in comparison, the Osborne 1 had a 5" display).[18]
Early in the Kaypro's life, there was a legal dispute with the owner of the Big Board computer, who charged that the Kaypro II main circuit board was an unlicensed copy or clone.[citation needed]
The outer case is constructed of painted aluminum. The computer features a large detachable keyboard unit that covers the screen and disk drives when stowed. The computer could fit into an airline overhead rack.[18] This and other Kaypro computers (except for the Kaypro 2000) run off regular AC mains power and are not equipped with a battery.
The Kaypro IV and later the Kaypro 4 have two double-sided disks. The Kaypro 4 was released in 1984, and was usually referred to as Kaypro 4 '84, as opposed to the Kaypro IV, released one year earlier and referred to as Kaypro IV '83. The Kaypro IV uses different screen addresses than the Kaypro II, meaning software has to be specific to the model.[citation needed]
A Kaypro 10 portable computer.
The Kaypro 10 followed the Kaypro II, and is much like the Kaypro II and Kaypro 4, with the addition of a 10 megabytehard drive (dually partitioned A: and B:) and replacing one of the two floppy drives (the remaining drive being addressed as C:). The Kaypro 10 also eliminated the complicated procedures to turn the computer on and off often associated with hard disk technology.[19]
Kaypro later replaced their CP/M machines with the MS-DOS-based Kaypro 16, Kaypro PC and others, as the IBM PC and its clones gained popularity. Kaypro was late to the market, however, and never gained the kind of prominence in the MS-DOS arena that it had enjoyed with CP/M. Instead, Kaypro watched as a new company—Compaq—grabbed its market with the Compaq Portable, an all-in-one portable computer that was similar to Kaypro's own CP/M portables with the exception of running MS-DOS with near 100% IBM PC compatibility. The Compaq was larger and less durable—whereas the Kaypro had a heavy-gauge aluminium case, the Compaq case was plastic, with a thin-gauge aluminum inner shield to reduce radio frequency interference—but rapidly took over the portable PC market segment.
The 1985 introductions of the Kaypro 286i, the first IBM PC AT clone,[20] and the Kaypro 2000,[21] one of the first laptop computers (an MS-DOS system with monochrome LCD and durable aluminum case), did little to change Kaypro's fortunes. Kaypro's failure in the MS-DOS market and other corporate issues helped lead to the company's eventual downfall.
CP/M was the standard operating system for the first generation of Kaypros. The first application software that came with the Kaypro II included a highly unpopular word processor called Select that was quickly dropped in favor of a proto office suite from Perfect Software which included Perfect Writer, Perfect Calc, Perfect Filer, and Perfect Speller, as well as Kaypro's own S-BASICcompiler (which produced executable .com files). Perfect Filer featured non-relational, flat-file databases suitable for merging a contact list with form letters created in Perfect Writer.
Perfect Writer was initially a rebranded version of the MINCE and Scribble software packages from Mark of the Unicorn, which are CP/M implementations of Emacs and Scribe, ported from their original minicomputer-based versions using BDS C. Later, MBasic (a variant of Microsoft BASIC) and The Word Plus spellchecker were added to the model II suite of software. Word Plus included a set of utilities that could help solve crossword puzzles or anagrams, insert soft hyphens, alphabetize word lists, and compute word frequencies. Another utility program called Uniform allowed the Kaypro to read disks formatted by Osborne, Xerox, or TRS-80 computers.
Data could be moved between these programs relatively easily by using comma-delimited format files (now more commonly known as CSV files), which enhanced the utility of the package. The manuals assumed no computer background, the programs were straightforward to use, and thus it was possible to find the CEO of a small company developing the applications needed in-house.
The Kaypro II and later models also came with some games, including versions of old character-based games such as Star Trek; a few were arcade games re-imagined in ASCII, including CatChum (a Pac-Man-like game), Aliens (a Space Invaders-like game) and Ladder (a Donkey Kong-like game).
If bought separately, this software would have cost more than the entire hardware and software package together. The Kaypro II was a very usable and (at the time) powerful computer for home or office, even though the painted metal case made it look more like a rugged laboratory instrument than an office machine. It enjoyed a reputation for durability.
Later Kaypro CP/M models came with even more software. In 1984, BYTE magazine observed "Kaypro apparently has tremendous buying and bargaining power," noting the Kaypro 10 came with both WordStar and Perfect Writer, plus "two spelling checkers, two spreadsheets, two communications programs and three versions of BASIC".[22]
Later MS-DOS Kaypro computers offered a similar software bundle.
InfoWorld in 1982 described Kaypro II as "a rugged, functional and practical computer system marketed at a reasonable price." The reviewer called the hardware "first-rate," writing that he had used the computer indoors and outdoors in several countries without fault, and praising the keyboard and screen. Deficiencies included the heavy weight and mediocre documentation.[23]
Jerry Pournelle wrote in BYTE in 1983 that he was able to use a Kaypro II without the documentation. Although he preferred the much more expensive Otrona Attaché, Pournelle called the Kaypro's hardware "impressive" and "rugged," approving of the keyboard layout and "certainly the largest screen you'll ever get in a portable machine."[18] A later review by the magazine described the computer as "best value," citing the rugged hardware design, sharp display, keyboard, documentation, and the extensive bundled software.[24] In 1984 Pournelle stated that "For those without much money, there's no real choice ... you need a Kaypro, which has become both the VW and Chevrolet of the micro industry ... rugged, reliable, and not very pretty".[25]
BYTE stated in 1984 that while the Kaypro 10 was "not a technologically innovative machine ... the equipment and power delivered for the price are outstanding", noting that the $2,795 computer "costs less than many stand-alone hard-disk drives". It approved of the "beautiful" monitor as an improvement from the Kaypro II's, and the extensive menus for running software on the hard drive without using the command line. The magazine criticized the "unacceptable" user's guide, and predicted that the large software bundle would be "stupefying" to novice users, but concluded that the computer was an "exceptional value for the money. It should be considered by anyone interested in hard-disk capacity or performance at an excellent price."[22]
Creative Computing in December 1984 chose the Kaypro 2 as the best transportable computer under $2,500, praising the "incredible array of software" included for "an astounding $1,295" price.[26]
Kaypro's nomenclature was odd, with the numerical designations for their machines having more to do with the capacity of the drives than the order they were produced. Kaypro also released several different models with the same names, perhaps hoping to capitalize on the name recognition of their older machines. As a result, identifying exactly which model a Kaypro is often requires an inspection of their hardware configuration.
All of the computers listed below are of the portable type unless otherwise noted.
1982
Kaypro IIKaycomp II (prototype): The first Kaypro was a demonstrator model shown mainly to prospective dealers. It had the same case as future models, but was painted green[citation needed], with two single sided floppy drives that were mounted vertically on opposite sides of the monitor like the Osborne 1, its intended competition, and a 9-inch internal monitor instead of the Osborne's 5-inch display.[27]A computer virtually identical to the later Kaypro II but labeled "Kaycomp" on the side was sold to the public in limited numbers. This version had two vertically mounted drives on the right and a Keytronic keyboard with all-black keys rather than the blue numeric keypad.[citation needed]
Kaypro II: The first commercially released Kaypro was an immediate success, dominating its competition, the Osborne 1 microcomputer. Originally marketed as Kaycomp II, it featured two single sided floppy disk drives mounted horizontally to the right of the 9" monochrome green CRT screen, which provided an 80x24 character ASCII display. The Z80 CPU ran at 2.5 MHz.[27]
1983
Kaypro IV: An evolution of the Kaypro II, the Kaypro IV had two DS/DD drives (390 KB) and came with WordStar in addition to the Perfect Suite of software.
Kaypro 10Kaypro 10: The Kaypro 10 was one of the earliest computers to come standard with a hard drive. It came with a 10-megabyte internal hard drive and a single DS/DD floppy drive.
1984
Kaypro 4: The Kaypro 4 was virtually identical to the IV, but featured half-height drives instead of full-height drives, a 4 MHz clock speed and had basic graphics capabilities. It also had an internal 300-baud modem.
Kaypro 2X: The Kaypro 2X was similar to the Kaypro 4, but it lacked the built-in 300-baud modem that was available in the Kaypro 4. Kaypro 2X's were often sold in a bundle with the WordStar word processing software suite, spreadsheet and database software. The impact printer that was also included in the bundle was labeled as the "Kaypro Printer," but was actually a re-branded Juki 6100 daisywheel printer.
Kaypro Robie: The Kaypro Robie was the only CP/M based Kaypro to be non-portable. Designed as a desktop computer, it had the same motherboard as the Kaypro 4. It was also equipped with two 2.6 MB high-density floppy drives and a 300-baud modem. The floppy drives were notorious for destroying disks as they literally scraped the media off of the disk substrate. The Robie was jet black, with the drives mounted above the screen, and the front panel angled upward. The Robie did not sell well, but it did make periodic cameo appearances on the ABC television series Moonlighting, as the desktop computer used by Bruce Willis's character David Addison. Due to its black color, the fact that it sat upright and looked like a helmet, and its handle mounted on the top, it was nicknamed "Darth Vader's lunchbox".[by whom?]
1985
Kaypro "New" 2: A scaled-down Kaypro 2X for the budget buyer, came with minimal software. It featured single sided double density drives instead of the 2X's double sided drives and did not feature the internal modem.
Kaypro 4+88: A dual system computer, the 4+88 was equipped with both an 8088 processor and a Z80, and was capable of running both the MS-DOS and CP/M operating systems. It came with 256 KB of RAM for the MS-DOS operating system that could double as a RAM disk for CP/M.
Kaypro 16: Very similar in appearance to the Kaypro 10, the Kaypro 16's main difference was that it had an 8088 processor and 256 KB of RAM and ran on the MS-DOS operating system instead of CP/M. The Kaypro 16/2e was a "Bundle" for a college computer. It came with DOS 3.3, two 5.25" 360 KB floppy drives and 768 KB RAM and bundled software to complete the college course.
Kaypro 2000: Kaypro's first and only laptop, it was an MS-DOS machine that ran on heavy lead-acid batteries—the same battery technology used in automobile batteries. Similar in basic appearance to a modern laptop, it featured a detachable keyboard, rugged brushed aluminum casing and a pop-up 3.5-inch floppy drive.[28] In what seems to have been a recurring comparison, it has been called "Darth Vader's laptop".
Kaypro PC: Late to the PC market, the Kaypro PC was intended as a competitor to the IBM PC-XT desktop machine. Running at a faster clock speed than IBM's machine, it was available with a larger hard drive than that offered by IBM and an extensive software package. It featured the CPU on a daughterboard on a backplane, which, like the Zenith Data Systems' Z-DOS machines, promised upgradability.
Kaypro 286i: A 6 MHz 286 desktop, it was the first IBM PC/AT compatible, with dual 1.2 MB floppy drives standard and an extensive software package but no MS-DOS 3.0, which had not yet been released, requiring the user to purchase PC DOS 3.0 from IBM.[29]
1986
Kaypro 1Kaypro 1: The Kaypro 1 was the last CP/M model Kaypro introduced. In most ways, it was simply a Kaypro 2X with a smaller software package. It is distinctive from earlier Kaypro models because of its vertically oriented disk drives (although some Kaypro 10 models also had them).
1987
Kaypro 386: A 20 MHz 386 desktop, with an extensive software package. It featured a CPU on a circuit board that fit onto a backplane, just like the other expansion cards.
^The term "portable" also implies that the weight of the machine was low enough that a typical adult was capable of lifting it. In the early 1980s, the alternative to a "portable" computer was a computer designed to be installed at a fixed location: such a machine was typically impractical to transport without some disassembly and was difficult or impossible for a single person to carry out of a room, let alone to another building, in a single trip. The Kaypro II (like the Osborne 1, the later Compaq Portable, and the original Apple Macintosh) was portable in the way a portable typewriter—one of the machines that personal computers replaced—was portable, and should not be confused with the meaning of the modern term 'mobile' (e.g. 'mobile phone', or "mobile computing with a notebook PC"). The standard Kaypro II (like the other three portable machines mentioned) was powered by AC line current only; it was meant to be moved from one building to another—e.g. from one's home to one's office or a friend's home—to be quickly set up and used on a desk or tabletop there.
^One minimal Centronics-type printer port and one RS-232 serial port with a baud rate up to 19200, though the CPU might not have been able to sustain that serial data rate.
^Some Kaypro II units—probably the earliest ones—have the 81-110 mainboard, which lacks the connection of the side-select signal and so can only control single-sided drives. Other Kaypro II units have the 81-240 mainboard: this is the same board used in the Kaypro 4, so it has that signal connected and can support double-sided drives. However, the Kaypro II and Kaypro 4, which have no equipment differences other than the installed floppy disk drives, also had different monitor ROM versions (as of Sept. 1985), so it might be necessary to replace that ROM at the same time double-sided drives are installed in the Kaypro II, effectively completing its conversion to a Kaypro 4 (except for the exterior finish). In the 1980s, the Kaypro 4 ROM could have been bought from Kaypro. In the 21st century, 8-bit Kaypro ROM images can be found on the web, but a vintage original Kaypro II might retain more value if kept in the original stock condition. Fortunately, all modifications discussed here are fully reversible, provided the original ROM is kept and stored appropriately to protect it.[6]
^E.g. sector data sizes of only 128, 256, 512, or 1024 bytes, certain minimum gap lengths, and other constraints as described in the Western Digital FD197X datasheet.
^Mainelli, Tom (May 22, 2001). "PC Pioneer Kaypro Dies, Again". PC World. Archived from the original on January 16, 2014. Retrieved March 15, 2007. Nostalgia isn't enough to make a PC brand profitable--just ask the folks at Kaypro. PC manufacturer Premio, which owns Kaypro and builds its systems, will continue operations and will honor all Kaypro service and warranty agreements, says company spokesperson Laura Miller.
Kaypro Corporation was an American microcomputer company that specialized in producing portable "luggable" computers during the early 1980s, emerging as a prominent player in the CP/M operating system market.[1] Founded in 1982 as a division of Non-Linear Systems, Inc., which had been established in 1952 by Andrew Kay to manufacture digital voltmeters and electronic test equipment, Kaypro quickly gained popularity for its rugged, all-in-one portable systems that combined a full-sized keyboard, monochrome display, and floppy drives in a metal chassis weighing around 26 pounds.[2] Inspired by the success of the Osborne 1 and named "II" to position it one step ahead of its main competitor, the company's flagship product, the Kaypro II, released in March 1982 for $1,595, featured a Zilog Z80 processor at 2.5 MHz, 64 KB of RAM, a 9-inch green phosphor CRT screen, two 5.25-inch single-sided double-density floppy drives (each 195 KB), and bundled with CP/M 2.2 and the Perfect software suite, including Perfect Writer (word processor) and Perfect Calc (spreadsheet).[1][3][4]At its peak in 1983, Kaypro ranked as the fifth-largest personal computer manufacturer in the United States, shipping approximately 10,000 units per month and establishing a network of over 750 dealers and 157 service locations to support its products.[1][2] The company's computers were designed for durability using aerospace-grade materials, drawing on Non-Linear Systems' expertise in electronic instrumentation, and appealed to professionals, writers, and travelers seeking affordable alternatives to desktop systems.[2] Notable users included science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke, who used a Kaypro II to write his 1982 novel 2010: Odyssey Two and for email communication during the production of the 1984 film adaptation 2010.[1][5] Kaypro expanded its lineup with models such as the Kaypro 10 (featuring a 10 MB hard drive), Kaypro IV, Kaypro 4 (with 64 KB RAM and 400 KB per floppy), and later MS-DOS-compatible systems like the Kaypro 2000 (with 768 KB RAM and a detachable keyboard).[6][2][7]Despite initial success, Kaypro struggled to transition to the IBM PC standard and MS-DOS dominance in the mid-1980s, leading to financial difficulties.[1] The company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in March 1990 and was fully liquidated by June 1992, marking the end of its operations after a decade of innovation in portable computing.[1] Kaypro's contributions helped popularize the concept of transportable computers, influencing the evolution toward lighter laptops and underscoring the rapid shifts in the personal computer industry during the 1980s.[1]
History
Founding and Origins
Kaypro Corporation originated as a division of Non-Linear Systems (NLS), an electronics firm founded by Andrew Kay in 1952 in Del Mar, California, near Solana Beach.[8][9] Kay, an MIT-educated engineer born to Russian immigrant parents, had previously worked at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and sought to innovate in electronic instrumentation after observing limitations in analog devices.[10] In 1953, he invented the world's first digital voltmeter at NLS, a breakthrough that displayed measurements using illuminated numerals and propelled the company to rapid growth, reaching 150 employees and over $5 million in annual sales by the late 1950s.[8][9] NLS relocated to Solana Beach in 1968 and initially thrived on contracts from the aerospace and military sectors, but faced significant decline in the 1970s following the end of the Apollo program, with revenues dropping to around $1.6 million by 1970.[10][9]By 1981, Kay, seeking a new product line to revive NLS amid the emerging personal computer market, directed the company toward developing affordable portable computers targeted at small businesses and professionals, pivoting from its traditional test equipment focus to capitalize on the growing demand for compact computing solutions.[9] This initiative was inspired by Kay's exposure to his son-in-law's Apple II in 1979, which highlighted the potential for compact, all-in-one systems, but the primary motivation was to address the shortcomings of the Osborne 1, the first commercially successful portable computer released in 1981.[9][11] Kay aimed for a more rugged design with greater value, emphasizing durability in an aluminum chassis and a larger display to outpace competitors while keeping costs low for broader accessibility.[11] Development began in the spring of 1981 under Kay's leadership, with his son David contributing to the design, and required an investment of $250,000 to $300,000 in engineering.[8][9]A key precursor to Kaypro's products was the "Big Board," a Z80-based single-board computer introduced in 1980 by designer Jim Ferguson, which provided a complete CP/M-compatible system on one board.[12] NLS adopted and modified this design for its initial portable computer efforts, enabling rapid prototyping and compatibility with existing software ecosystems, though initial plans to directly use the Big Board were adjusted due to licensing issues with Ferguson.[12][13] The division formally became Kaypro Corporation in 1982, named after Andrew Kay to reflect its origins, though early prototypes were briefly called "Kaycomp" before a naming conflict with another computer firm prompted the change to "Kaypro."[11][9][14] This foundation positioned Kaypro to enter the market with a focus on practicality and affordability, setting the stage for its debut product later that year.[11]
Early Success and Market Entry
The Kaypro II was introduced in March 1982 by Non-Linear Systems (later renamed Kaypro Corporation) as its first portable computer, priced at $1,795 and featuring a Zilog Z80 processor running the CP/M operating system.[15][1] The name "Kaypro II" was strategically chosen to suggest superiority over the Osborne 1, positioning it as a direct competitor in the portable computing space.[16] This "luggable" design, weighing 29 pounds and encased in a rugged aluminum chassis, addressed key limitations of earlier portables like the Osborne 1 by offering a larger 9-inch screen, detachable keyboard, and superior build quality with die-cast aluminum construction for enhanced durability, which contributed to its immediate market appeal for business users.[17][18][1]Kaypro's marketing emphasized the Kaypro II's portability and durability for professionals on the move, bundling it with a comprehensive software suite including word processing, spreadsheet, and database applications from Perfect Software, alongside CP/M utilities.[19][20] By mid-1983, the company reduced the price to $1,595, driving sales to over 10,000 units per month and elevating Kaypro to the fifth-largest personal computer manufacturer in the United States at the time, with annual revenues reaching approximately $75 million.[11][21] This rapid growth was fueled by the Kaypro II's competitive edge over the Osborne 1, particularly in screen size and chassis durability, which helped Kaypro capture significant market share in the CP/M portable segment.[17][22]The intensifying rivalry with Osborne Computer Corporation exemplified the cutthroat early 1980s portable market, where Kaypro's gains—through aggressive pricing and superior features—partly contributed to Osborne's financial woes, culminating in the latter's bankruptcy filing in September 1983 amid slumping sales and aggressive competition.[17][23] To accommodate surging demand, Kaypro expanded production dramatically in 1983, erecting a large white circus tent adjacent to its Solana Beach facility in late 1983 to serve as temporary overflow warehouse for parts and assembly, reflecting the company's hasty scaling efforts through 1984.[24][25]
Expansion and Challenges
Following the success of its early portable computers, Kaypro diversified its product line in 1983 and 1984 to address evolving market demands, introducing models that incorporated hard drives and began transitioning toward MS-DOS compatibility. The Kaypro 4, released in 1983, featured an upgraded Z80 processor, 64 KB RAM, and dual double-sided floppy drives while retaining CP/M as its operating system, positioning it as a more robust option for business users and serving as an evolution from the Kaypro II with improved storage capacity. That same year, the Kaypro 10 debuted with a 10 MB hard drive, marking the company's initial shift toward integrated storage solutions to enhance data handling capabilities beyond floppy-based systems. In September 1985, Kaypro launched the Kaypro 16, its first IBM PC-compatible transportable computer equipped with an 8088 processor and MS-DOS, responding to the growing dominance of the IBM ecosystem.[26][27][28][29]Kaypro's growth extended rapidly through an expanding dealer network and international outreach. By early 1984, the company supported over 1,200 dealers across the United States, enabling widespread distribution of its portables. Internationally, Kaypro entered markets in Europe and Asia, bolstered by partnerships such as a preliminary agreement with Japan's Mitsui & Company to leverage Kaypro's dealer channels for joint product marketing, and evidenced by the formation of the International Kaypro Users' Group, which grew to over 15,000 members worldwide by late 1984. This expansion contributed to projected sales exceeding $125 million for the year.[30][31][32]However, operational challenges emerged amid this growth, culminating in a major scandal in September 1984 when Kaypro disclosed an investigation into potentially missing computer components valued at up to $6 million from its Solana Beach, California, facility. Parts such as chips, screens, and disk drives, part of a $60 million inventory as of June 30, were stored insecurely in a circus tent, trucks, and on the lawn, exacerbating poor accounting practices that hindered precise assessment. Auditors from Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co. conducted a preliminary review, leading to internal probes and heightened financial scrutiny, which strained resources and foreshadowed profitability issues, including the company's first quarterly loss later that year.[33]Kaypro's efforts to adapt to industry shifts from CP/M to MS-DOS and graphical user interfaces proved challenging, as the company lagged behind competitors in fully embracing IBM PC standards. While the Kaypro 16 represented a step toward compatibility, developers increasingly favored MS-DOS platforms, leaving Kaypro's CP/M-focused lineup vulnerable as software migration accelerated and variants like the Kaypro 2000 attempted to bridge the gap but failed to reverse the decline. Under founder Andrew Kay's leadership as president and CEO, his son David Kay played a pivotal role in operations and sales direction during this period, overseeing manufacturing expansion and attempting internal restructuring to improve inventory controls and production efficiency in response to these pressures.[26][9]
Decline, Bankruptcy, and Revival Attempts
By the late 1980s, Kaypro experienced a sharp financial decline as the personal computer market shifted toward IBM PC-compatible standards, which the company had been slow to adopt despite introducing compatible models in 1985. Sales dropped dramatically from $72 million in fiscal year 1988 to $21.8 million in 1989, accompanied by a net loss of $19.2 million in the latter year, amid intense competition from established players like IBM and Compaq, whose portable and desktop compatibles dominated the market with broader software support and ecosystem integration.[34][23][11]Facing mounting debts exceeding $20 million, Kaypro filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on March 1, 1990, allowing it to continue operations while reorganizing. Founder and Chairman Andrew Kay played a central role in these efforts, regaining operational control in mid-1990 and ousting President and CEO Roy Y. Salisbury to streamline management and pursue debt restructuring, including personal loans he had provided earlier to sustain the company. Despite these attempts, ongoing market challenges and internal financial disarray—highlighted by auditors disclaiming responsibility for the 1989 records due to poor accounting—proved insurmountable, leading to the conversion of the proceedings to Chapter 7 liquidation in June 1992.[35][36][37]In the liquidation process, Kaypro's remaining assets, including inventory and facilities, were sold off to satisfy creditors, culminating in a $2.7 million sale of property in 1995. Intellectual property rights, including the Kaypro brand, were later transferred to Premio Inc., which in 1999 briefly revived the name for an online line of budget Windows-based PCs priced between $700 and $1,200, achieving minor chart placement but generating insufficient profits. The revival effort ended in 2001, as the brand proved irrelevant in the saturated PC market dominated by larger vendors.[23]
Technology and Products
Hardware Design
Kaypro computers were designed with a focus on portability and ruggedness, targeting mobile professionals who required reliable computing in varied environments. The core architecture emphasized a "luggable" form factor, typically measuring around 18 by 15.5 by 8 inches when folded, with a carrying handle for transport. This design philosophy prioritized durability through a heavy-gauge aluminum chassis that protected internal components from physical shocks and environmental hazards, weighing approximately 26 pounds for early models like the Kaypro II. A 9-inch monochrome CRT display, often with green phosphor for high contrast, was integrated directly into the unit, allowing the detachable keyboard to latch over it for secure closure during movement. The Kaypro II specifically featured a rugged aluminum case that enhanced its portability and resilience compared to competitors.[3]The processor lineup evolved to balance performance with the constraints of portable systems. Initial models featured the Zilog Z80 microprocessor operating at 2.5 MHz, providing efficient handling of CP/M-based tasks while minimizing power draw. Subsequent iterations, such as the Kaypro 4, upgraded to a Z80A variant clocked at 4 MHz for improved speed without significantly increasing heat or energy demands. As Kaypro shifted toward IBM PC compatibility in the mid-1980s, models incorporated the Intel 8088 processor at speeds up to 4.77 MHz, enabling MS-DOS execution alongside legacy CP/M support in hybrid designs. Later entries, including the Kaypro 286i, adopted the Intel 80286 at 6 MHz or higher, supporting multitasking and expanded addressing for more demanding applications.[38][26][39]Memory configurations started modestly to align with contemporary software needs, with 64 KB of RAM as standard in early Z80-based systems, supplemented by 2 KB of ROM for bootstrapping. Expandability was a key feature, allowing upgrades to 256 KB or more via internal slots in compatible models, and up to 1 MB in PC-compatible variants through additional memory boards. Storage emphasized reliability and capacity for the era: most units included dual 5.25-inch floppy drives, each offering 195 KB to 400 KB depending on single- or double-sided density. For the Kaypro II, this consisted of two single-sided double-density 5.25-inch floppy drives, each providing approximately 195 KB of formatted capacity. By 1984, hard disk integration became available, with 10 MB drives standard in models like the Kaypro 10 and options up to 20 MB in later systems, using ST-506 interfaces for robust data retention in mobile use.[38][40][3]Peripherals were integrated to enhance usability without external dependencies, supporting the portable ethos. A built-in 300-baud modem with Bell 103 compatibility connected via an RJ-11 jack, facilitating direct dial-up communications. I/O included one Centronics-compatible parallel port for printers, two RS-232C serial ports for peripherals like modems or terminals, and a full 76-key detachable keyboard with a coiled cord for flexibility. The power supply innovated for luggability by incorporating an internal AC adapter that converted standard wall power efficiently, avoiding bulky external transformers and enabling operation from a single cord in office or field settings. Early designs drew inspiration from the Big Board S-100 bus architecture, offering partial compatibility for expansion cards in prototype and initial production runs, though later models shifted to proprietary buses. Users could add graphics upgrades, such as monochrome or limited color adapters, and basic sound capabilities via optional cards to extend functionality beyond text-based computing.[38]
Software and Operating Systems
The Kaypro computers initially ran CP/M-80 version 2.2 as their primary operating system, which was well-suited to the Z80 processor in early models like the Kaypro II and Kaypro 4. This OS provided a standardized environment for 8-bit microcomputers, enabling efficient file management and program execution on the system's limited resources. As the market shifted toward IBM PC compatibility in the mid-1980s, Kaypro transitioned to MS-DOS 2.0 and later versions for models such as the Kaypro 10 and Kaypro PC, with some configurations supporting PC-DOS for enhanced alignment with IBM standards. This evolution allowed Kaypro systems to access a growing library of business and productivity software, though the company was criticized for being slow to adopt the change amid declining CP/M support from developers.[26][41]A key selling point of Kaypro machines was their extensive bundled software suite, which emphasized productivity tools tailored for professional users. Early CP/M-based models included the Perfect Software package from Select Information Systems, featuring Perfect Writer for word processing, Perfect Calc for spreadsheet calculations, and Perfect Filer for database management, alongside dBase II from Ashton-Tate for more advanced data handling. The Kaypro II bundle also included S-BASIC (S-BASIC) for programming capabilities and compatibility with a wide range of third-party CP/M applications. Additional utilities like WordStar for document editing and MailMerge for form letter generation were also provided, often on multiple floppy disks to maximize the system's value without requiring separate purchases. For entertainment, bundles incorporated text-based games such as Microsoft Adventure, offering interactive fiction experiences that leveraged the system's monochrome display. These packages were pre-installed or supplied on bootable media, making the Kaypro an all-in-one solution for writers, accountants, and small business owners.[3][42][43]Kaypro implemented software customizations through a proprietary ROM-based BIOS to ensure seamless hardware integration, including built-in drivers for the dual floppy drives and optional hard disk controllers in later models. This firmware handled low-level operations like disk I/O and boot sequences, optimizing performance for the rugged, portable design without relying on external adapters. For expansion, early CP/M models supported a wide range of compatible software libraries developed for the OS, allowing users to add peripherals via serial ports or memory upgrades while maintaining binary compatibility with standard CP/M applications. As Kaypro moved to MS-DOS, systems gained access to IBM PC-compatible libraries, broadening software options but occasionally introducing compatibility hurdles with legacy CP/M tools. In 1984 models like the Kaypro 4/84, proprietary enhancements introduced semi-graphic modes using block characters on the 9-inch CRT, enabling basic charting and diagram creation in productivity apps without full graphical hardware.[44][45]
Model Lineup
Kaypro's model lineup evolved from rugged, portable CP/M-based luggables in the early 1980s to MS-DOS-compatible systems amid shifting industry standards, with several variants addressing niche markets.The company's CP/M era began with the Kaypro II in June 1982, a Z80-based portable computer with 64 KB RAM, dual single-sided double-density 5.25-inch floppy drives providing 195 KB each, and a $1,795 price tag; it was a bestseller in the transportable PC category and distinct from later models like the Kaypro IV or Kaypro 10 due to its foundational design and software bundle.[46][47][3] In 1983, the Kaypro IV followed with the same 64 KB RAM but upgraded to dual double-sided full-height floppy drives (400 KB each) for enhanced storage capacity at around $1,795, distinguishing it from the Kaypro II's single-sided drives.[46][2] The Kaypro 10, launched in 1983, introduced a 10 MB hard disk drive alongside one double-sided floppy for $2,795, targeting users needing more permanent storage and differing from the all-floppy Kaypro II.[6] The Kaypro 4, released in 1984, featured half-height double-sided drives (400 KB each), a faster 4 MHz Z80A processor, real-time clock, and additional ports while maintaining 64 KB RAM, priced at around $1,995.[46] By 1985, the Kaypro 16 advanced to 256 KB RAM standard (expandable to 640 KB) while retaining the portable form factor, positioning it as a higher-memory option in the lineup with an Intel 8088 processor for MS-DOS compatibility.[28][48]As Kaypro transitioned to MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, the Kaypro 2000 debuted in 1985 as the company's first laptop, featuring 256 KB RAM, an Intel 80C88 processor at 4.77 MHz, and heavy lead-acid batteries for portability at $1,995.[49] The Kaypro PC arrived in 1986 as an IBM PC compatible with an 8088 CPU and expandable memory, aimed at business users seeking compatibility with emerging PC software ecosystems.[15] In 1987, the Kaypro 286 offered 1 MB RAM standard, a 6 MHz 80286 processor, and AT compatibility, including dual 1.2 MB floppy drives, to compete in the faster desktop segment.[39]Lesser-known variants included the Kaypro Robbie, a 1984 prototype desktop with Z80 processor and 64 KB RAM that explored high-density floppy options but remained unreleased commercially.[46] The Kaypro 4/84, an enhanced 1984 version of the Kaypro 4, added graphics capabilities and real-time clock features while maintaining 64 KB RAM and double-sided drives.[46] For budget-conscious buyers, the Kaypro New 2 in 1984 provided a cost-reduced portable with 64 KB RAM and single-sided half-height drives at $1,295.[46] The Kaypro PC/EXP, an export-oriented 1987 model, featured a 4.77 MHz V20 CPU, 576 KB RAM, and adaptations like a 230V power supply for international markets.[50]
Reception and Legacy
Critical Reception
The Kaypro computers received generally positive contemporary reviews in the early 1980s for their affordability, rugged construction, and comprehensive software bundles that provided strong value for business and professional users. A September 1983 review in Byte magazine highlighted the Kaypro II as offering "dependable hardware and extensive software," praising its solid aluminum chassis that ran cool during extended use and its $1,595 price point, which included a robust suite of applications like Perfect Writer, Perfect Calc, and Profit Plan—collectively valued at over $1,000 in retail equivalents.[3] An October 1982 review in InfoWorld described the Kaypro II as "a rugged, functional and practical computer system marketed at a reasonable price," commending its vertical floppy drives, reliable performance, and overall value for portable computing.[51] Similarly, a May 1984 Byte assessment of the Kaypro 10 commended its 10-megabyte hard disk for enabling efficient word processing and database tasks in business environments, noting the system's shock-mounted drive maintained reliability even after rough transport.[52]Critics, however, pointed to several design limitations that hindered usability and appeal over time. Reviewers frequently noted the excessive weight of models like the 26-pound Kaypro II, whose handle dug into hands during carrying, undermining its "portable" designation despite the luggable form factor.[3]Documentation was another common complaint, with manuals for bundled software such as S-BASIC lacking code examples and the overall user's guide being incomplete or poorly indexed, forcing users to rely on trial and error.[3][52] The 9-inch green-phosphor screens were described as sharp for text but dim under varying lighting and restricted to monochrome output with basic character graphics, while later models struggled with adaptation to color displays and higher-resolution graphics, capping the Kaypro 10 at a rudimentary 160x100 pixel mode unsuitable for advanced visual applications.[3][52]A notable endorsement came from science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke, who utilized a Kaypro II in 1982 to draft his novel 2010: Odyssey Two while based in Sri Lanka, marking it as the first novel he wrote on a computer and emphasizing its suitability for mobile writing workflows.[53] Early user feedback from 1980s bulletin board systems and professional circles further underscored the machines' durability in field conditions, with the metal enclosures often credited for withstanding travel and environmental stresses better than competitors like the Osborne 1, though this came at the expense of comfort and modernity.[3]
Market Impact
Kaypro achieved significant commercial success in the early 1980s portable computer market, becoming the top seller of portables in 1983 with approximately 135,000 units sold, capturing roughly one-third of the segment.[24] This surge, driven by the Kaypro II's affordability and bundled software, propelled the company's revenue to $75 million that year, up from $5 million in 1982, while generating $12 million in net profits.[32] The pricing strategy of offering the Kaypro II at $1,595—including a software bundle valued at over $1,000—underscored its value proposition and contributed to monthly sales exceeding 10,000 units, making Kaypro the fifth-largest personal computer manufacturer in 1983.[24] The Osborne Computer Corporation's bankruptcy in September 1983, amid intense competition from Kaypro's superior screen size and storage, further elevated Kaypro's position, ranking it fourth overall in the U.S. personal computer market by revenue behind IBM, Apple, and Radio Shack, and disrupting the early portable computing landscape.[24]By 1984, Kaypro maintained a robust dealer network of over 1,100 independent U.S. retail outlets, which facilitated rapid nationwide distribution and contributed to projected sales exceeding $125 million.[25] However, this expansive channel also sowed seeds of conflict as the market shifted toward IBM PC compatibles; dealers faced inventory overhang from Kaypro's CP/M-based systems, leading to reduced orders and strained relationships by the mid-1980s.[54] In comparison, competitors like the Compaq Portable, launched in 1983 as the first major IBM PC-compatible luggable, achieved about 53,000 units sold that year at a higher price point of $3,590, generating $111 million in revenue but targeting a different, more corporate audience.[55] The Epson PX-8, a smaller CP/M laptop introduced in 1984, saw limited market penetration with no comparable sales volume, underscoring Kaypro's dominance in the rugged, transportable category.[56]Kaypro's commercial footprint waned in the late 1980s amid the industry's pivot to MS-DOS and IBM standards, resulting in substantial losses from inventory overhang and obsolete components. The company reported an $11.5 million net loss in fiscal 1988 on $72.2 million in sales, following a $9.6 million loss the prior year, with a $1.1 million charge for obsolete parts exacerbating the downturn.[57] These financial pressures, totaling over $20 million across 1987-1988 and continuing into 1989, stemmed from aggressive stockpiling of CP/M-era parts that lost value as the PC market exploded, ultimately contributing to Kaypro's 1990 bankruptcy filing.[58]Despite its eventual decline, Kaypro exerted lasting influence on the portable computing sector by popularizing the bundled software model—offering suites like WordStar and Perfect Writer with retail values exceeding the $1,595 machine price—and emphasizing rugged, transportable designs in die-cast aluminum cases.[59] These innovations, building on the Osborne 1's precedent, helped transition the industry from bulky desktops to more mobile form factors, laying groundwork for the laptop era by demonstrating viability for business users on the go.[60]
Cultural and Modern Legacy
Kaypro computers left a notable imprint on popular culture during the 1980s, particularly as symbols of the era's "luggable" portables that bridged desktop power with mobility for professionals on the go. These rugged machines, weighing around 26 pounds and encased in durable metal, became icons of early computing accessibility, often featured in depictions of innovative yet cumbersome technology.[53] In science fiction, renowned author Arthur C. Clarke utilized a Kaypro II in 1982 from his Sri Lanka base to draft the novel 2010: Odyssey Two, his first computer-written book, and in 1984 to transmit the screenplay for the film adaptation to Hollywood collaborators via modem, highlighting the device's role in remote creative workflows despite connectivity challenges.[53][61] Clarke's endorsement, including Kaypro's provision of modem-compatible software for coordination with director Peter Hyams, underscored the computer's utility in high-profile literary and film production.[62]Beyond fiction, Kaypro systems were staples in journalism and small business operations, empowering writers and entrepreneurs with bundled software like WordStar for efficient document creation and editing on the fly. The Kaypro II, in particular, revolutionized writing by allowing seamless paragraph rearrangements without retyping, a boon for journalists sharing work via early digital networks like AOL and reducing reliance on postal delays.[53] Its durability made it suitable for use in extreme environments, such as field reporting in remote or harsh conditions, where the aluminum case protected against travel stresses better than lighter competitors like the Osborne 1.[3] Compared to contemporaries, the Kaypro II's larger 9-inch screen and bundled software gave it an edge over the Osborne 1, influencing designs like the Compaq Portable by emphasizing ruggedness and value in portable computing. For small businesses, founder Andrew Kay targeted these machines at owners needing affordable, all-in-one solutions for tasks like accounting and correspondence, positioning Kaypro as a practical tool in the pre-laptop age.[9]Historically, Kaypro exemplified the transitional phase from the CP/M operating system era to the dominance of IBM PC compatibles and MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, with its initial models thriving on CP/M's ecosystem before a delayed pivot to MS-DOS machines in 1985.[11] This shift illustrated the rapid obsolescence of early microcomputers, as the rise of standardized PC architecture marginalized CP/M-based systems like Kaypro's, rendering them relics within a decade.[63]A significant blemish on Kaypro's reputation stemmed from a 1984 inventory scandal, where an audit revealed up to $6 million in missing parts—including chips, screens, and disk drives—stored insecurely in a circus tent and trucks, amid allegations of theft and accounting errors. This incident triggered a sharp stock plunge from $10 to $3 7/8, management upheaval, and foreshadowed legal troubles, including a 1986 class-action lawsuit accusing executives of inflating revenue projections, contributing to enduring distrust among investors and consumers.[33][64]In modern times, Kaypro's legacy endures through dedicated preservation efforts. Active collector communities, such as the Kaypro Computer Users Facebook group and forums on Vintage Computer Federation, facilitate restoration discussions, troubleshooting, and sharing of experiences with these machines.[65] Emulation software like SIMH enables accurate replication of the Kaypro II's hardware and CP/M environment on contemporary systems, allowing enthusiasts to run original software without physical hardware, while efforts by groups like TOSEC preserve software images on the Internet Archive.[66][67] Parts remain available via vintage markets like eBay, supporting ongoing repairs and demonstrations.[68]The brand saw a brief revival in 1999 under Premio Inc., which repurposed the Kaypro name for online sales of Microsoft Windows PCs, but the effort faltered due to sluggish sales and was discontinued by 2001, further diluting the original marque's association with innovative portables.[69] Educationally, Kaypro artifacts are preserved in institutions like the Computer History Museum, which holds models such as the Kaypro 10 for exhibits on early portable computing. Online archives, including TOSEC collections on the Internet Archive, provide access to original Kaypro II software images, ensuring the platform's historical software ecosystem remains explorable for researchers and hobbyists.[6][67]
.jpg)
