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Formal fallacy
Formal fallacy
Formal fallacy
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In logic and philosophy, a formal fallacy[a] is a pattern of reasoning with a flaw in its logical structure (the logical relationship between the premises and the conclusion). In other words:

  • It is a pattern of reasoning in which the conclusion may not be true even if all the premises are true.
  • It is a pattern of reasoning in which the premises do not entail the conclusion.
  • It is a pattern of reasoning that is invalid.
  • It is a fallacy in which deduction goes wrong, and is no longer a logical process.

A formal fallacy is contrasted with an informal fallacy which may have a valid logical form and yet be unsound because one or more premises are false. A formal fallacy, however, may have a true premise, but a false conclusion. The term 'logical fallacy' is sometimes used in everyday conversation, and refers to a formal fallacy.

Propositional logic,[2] for example, is concerned with the meanings of sentences and the relationships between them. It focuses on the role of logical operators, called propositional connectives, in determining whether a sentence is true. An error in the sequence will result in a deductive argument that is invalid. The argument itself could have true premises, but still have a false conclusion.[3] Thus, a formal fallacy is a fallacy in which deduction goes wrong, and is no longer a logical process. This may not affect the truth of the conclusion, since validity and truth are separate in formal logic.

While "a logical argument is a non sequitur" is synonymous with "a logical argument is invalid", the term non sequitur typically refers to those types of invalid arguments which do not constitute formal fallacies covered by particular terms (e.g., affirming the consequent). In other words, in practice, "non sequitur" refers to an unnamed formal fallacy.

Common examples

[edit]
Main article: List of fallacies
Venn diagram showing how axioms of "most animals in this zoo are birds" and "most birds can fly" need not mean that "most animals in this zoo can fly"

In the strictest sense, a logical fallacy is the incorrect application of a valid logical principle or an application of a nonexistent principle, such as reasoning that:

  1. Most animals in this zoo are birds.
  2. Most birds can fly.
  3. Therefore, most animals in this zoo can fly.

This is fallacious: a zoo could have a large proportion of flightless birds.

Indeed, there is no logical principle that states:

  1. For some x, P(x).
  2. For some x, Q(x).
  3. Therefore, for some x, P(x) and Q(x).

An easy way to show the above inference as invalid is by using Venn diagrams. In logical parlance, the inference is invalid, since under at least one interpretation of the predicates it is not validity preserving.

People often have difficulty applying the rules of logic. For example, a person may say the following syllogism is valid, when in fact it is not:

  1. All birds have beaks.
  2. That creature has a beak.
  3. Therefore, that creature is a bird.

"That creature" may well be a bird, but the conclusion does not follow from the premises. Certain other animals also have beaks, such as turtles. Errors of this type occur because people reverse a premise.[4] In this case, "All birds have beaks" is converted to "All beaked animals are birds." The reversed premise is plausible because few people are aware of any instances of beaked creatures besides birds—but this premise is not the one that was given. In this way, the deductive fallacy is formed by points that may individually appear logical, but when placed together are shown to be incorrect.

Special example

[edit]

A special case is a mathematical fallacy, an intentionally invalid mathematical proof, often with the error subtle and somehow concealed. Mathematical fallacies are typically crafted and exhibited for educational purposes, usually taking the form of spurious proofs of obvious contradictions.

Non sequitur in everyday speech

[edit]
Main article: Non sequitur (literary device)
See also: Derailment (thought disorder)

In everyday speech, a non sequitur is a statement in which the final part is totally unrelated to the first part, for example:

Life is life and fun is fun, but it's all so quiet when the goldfish die.

— West with the Night, Beryl Markham[5]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Formal fallacy

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A formal fallacy is an error in that arises from a flaw in the logical structure or form of an , rendering the conclusion even if the are true. Unlike errors dependent on the specific content or wording, formal fallacies can be detected solely by analyzing the argument's abstract pattern using symbolic logic, independent of semantic meaning. This type of fallacy is central to formal logic, where arguments are evaluated for validity based on whether the conclusion necessarily follows from the . Formal fallacies differ from informal fallacies in that the latter involve defects in the argument's content, such as ambiguity, irrelevance, or psychological manipulation, rather than structural issues. For instance, formal fallacies often occur in syllogisms or conditional statements, where the inference rules are misapplied. Common examples include the fallacy of affirming the consequent (e.g., "If it rains, the ground is wet. The ground is wet, therefore it rained"), which invalidly reverses a conditional; the fallacy of denying the antecedent (e.g., "If it rains, the ground is wet. It did not rain, therefore the ground is not wet"); and the undistributed middle term in categorical syllogisms (e.g., "All dogs are animals. All cats are animals. Therefore, all dogs are cats"). These patterns highlight how superficially plausible arguments can fail logically. In and , identifying formal fallacies is essential for constructing sound arguments and debunking invalid ones in fields like , , and public . They underscore the importance of rigorous logical analysis, as developed in classical systems by and refined in modern symbolic logic. By focusing on form, formal fallacies serve as a foundational tool for ensuring argumentative validity across diverse contexts.

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition

A formal fallacy is an error in the logical structure or form of an argument that renders it invalid, regardless of the actual truth or falsity of its or conclusion. This type of fallacy occurs when the argument fails to conform to the rules of valid , making it possible for the premises to be true while the conclusion is false. Unlike material fallacies, which depend on the content or of the premises and are typically informal, formal fallacies are identifiable solely by analyzing the argument's syntactic form, emphasizing that deductive validity hinges exclusively on structural integrity rather than substantive details. The concept of formal fallacies traces its origins to Aristotelian logic, where invalid deductive inferences were first systematically identified and classified in works such as the Sophistical Refutations. Aristotle's analysis laid the groundwork for distinguishing errors in reasoning based on form from those arising from misleading content, influencing subsequent developments in formal logic. In deductive arguments, the basic structure involves one or more intended to logically entail a conclusion, with validity requiring that the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion. Formal fallacies disrupt this validity by violating the necessary inferential patterns, such as those in syllogistic or propositional forms, thereby undermining the argument's logical force even if the premises hold empirical truth.

Key Characteristics

Formal fallacies are distinguished by their reliance on the logical structure of an rather than its specific propositional content, making them invariant to substitutions of the content while preserving the form. This property allows the invalidity to be assessed independently of whether the are factually true or meaningful; for instance, replacing the original statements with arbitrary propositions yields the same structural flaw, confirming the argument's failure to guarantee the conclusion. These fallacies apply exclusively to deductive arguments, where the goal is to derive a conclusion that necessarily follows from the premises with certainty, as opposed to inductive arguments that support conclusions only probabilistically. In deductive contexts, a formal fallacy indicates a breakdown in the logical necessity linking premises to conclusion, rendering the argument invalid regardless of the truth of its components. Detection of formal fallacies relies on formal analytical methods, such as truth tables for propositional arguments or diagrams for categorical ones, which systematically evaluate the structure for validity. In symbolic logic, arguments are formalized using sentential connectives—including implication (→\rightarrow), conjunction (∧\land), and disjunction (∨\lor)—to isolate and test the inferential pattern without regard to semantic content. The key consequence of a formal fallacy is the loss of deductive soundness: even with true premises, the invalid form permits the possibility of a false conclusion, thereby failing to preserve truth across the inference and compromising the argument's reliability in establishing certain knowledge.

Classification

Syllogistic Fallacies

A categorical syllogism is a deductive argument consisting of three categorical propositions—two premises and a conclusion—that together involve exactly three terms, with each term appearing twice: once in the major premise (which contains the major term, the predicate of the conclusion), once in the minor premise (which contains the minor term, the subject of the conclusion), and the middle term linking the major and minor terms across the premises. These propositions employ quantifiers such as "all," "some," "no," or "some not" to express relationships between categories, forming the foundational structure of Aristotelian logic. Valid categorical syllogisms adhere to specific formal rules to ensure the conclusion logically follows from the . These include: (1) the middle term must be distributed in at least one ; (2) no term distributed in the conclusion may be undistributed in its ; (3) at least one must be negative if the conclusion is negative; and (4) from two universal , no conclusion can be drawn under the interpretation, which avoids assuming . Violations of these rules produce syllogistic fallacies, which are formal errors arising from structural flaws rather than content. The fallacy of the undistributed middle occurs when the middle term, which connects the major and minor terms, is undistributed (not referring to all members of its category) in both premises, failing to establish a sufficient link for the conclusion. For example, in the argument "All dogs are mammals" (middle term "mammals" undistributed) and "All cats are mammals" (middle term undistributed), concluding "All dogs are cats" commits this fallacy because the shared category does not guarantee overlap between dogs and cats. This violates the first rule, rendering the syllogism invalid regardless of the truth of the premises. Illicit major and illicit minor fallacies arise from improper distribution of the major or minor terms between and conclusion. The illicit major happens when the major term is undistributed in the major premise but distributed in the conclusion, overextending the premise's scope; for instance, "All metals are elements" (major term "elements" undistributed) and "No non-elements are metals," concluding "No non-elements are elements" illicitly distributes "elements" in the conclusion. Similarly, the illicit minor occurs when the minor term is undistributed in the minor premise but distributed in the conclusion, as in "All A are B" and "Some C are A," invalidly concluding "All C are B." These breach the second rule, leading to conclusions that assert more than the warrant. The fallacy of exclusive premises occurs when both premises are negative, which cannot yield a valid conclusion because two negative premises fail to provide the necessary affirmative linkage between the terms, violating the third rule (a negative conclusion requires exactly one negative premise). For example, "No A are B" and "No C are B," concluding "No A are C" is invalid, as the negatives do not connect A and C affirmatively. The existential fallacy involves drawing a particular conclusion (implying ) from two universal premises, which under the modern interpretation do not presuppose the of the categories involved. A classic instance is "All A are B" and "No B are C," concluding "Some A are not C," which assumes existent A's despite the universals' hypothetical nature. This violates the fourth rule in Aristotelian logic's existential import but is avoided in systems by treating universals as non-committal to .

Propositional Fallacies

Propositional fallacies occur in arguments within propositional logic, a system that analyzes the validity of inferences based on truth-functional connectives applied to simple propositions, without regard to their internal structure or quantifiers. The core connectives include conjunction (∧), which asserts that both propositions are true; disjunction (∨), which asserts that at least one is true (inclusive or); material implication (→), which is false only if the antecedent is true while the consequent is false; and negation (¬), which inverts the truth value of a proposition. These fallacies arise when invalid patterns of reasoning using these connectives lead to conclusions that do not logically follow from the premises, detectable through truth tables or semantic analysis. One prominent propositional fallacy is , which invalidly infers the antecedent of an implication from the truth of its consequent. The invalid form is: If P then Q (P → Q); Q; therefore P. For example, "If it rains, the ground is wet; the ground is wet; therefore, it rained" commits this error, as the ground could be wet for other reasons, such as a sprinkler. The invalidity is evident from its , which shows cases where the premises are true but the conclusion false:
PQP → QQTherefore P
TTTTT
TFFFT
FTTTF
FFTFF
In the third row, P → Q and Q are true, but P is false, demonstrating that the argument form is not a tautology. Another common fallacy is , which invalidly concludes the of the consequent from the of the antecedent in an implication. The form is: If P then Q (P → Q); not P (¬P); therefore not Q (¬Q). An example is: "If you study, you pass the exam; you did not study; therefore, you did not pass," ignoring that passing could occur through other means, like prior . This pattern fails because, similar to , the reveals rows where ¬P and P → Q hold true while ¬Q is false (specifically, when P is false and Q is true). Affirming a disjunct represents a misuse of disjunction, where one assumes an exclusive interpretation (only one disjunct true) and invalidly denies the affirmed disjunct. The fallacious form is: P or Q (P ∨ Q); P; therefore not Q (¬Q). For instance, "Either the light is on or the switch is flipped; the light is on; therefore, the switch is not flipped" errs by overlooking that both could be true under an inclusive disjunction. In propositional logic, ∨ is inclusive, so affirming one disjunct does not entail denying the other; the truth table for (P ∨ Q) ∧ P → ¬Q shows it is not always true, with counterexamples when both P and Q are true. Fallacies also emerge from improper handling of conjunction and disjunction in inferences. While "P and Q (P ∧ Q); therefore P" is valid, as the truth of the conjunction guarantees each conjunct, and disjunctive syllogism (P ∨ Q; ¬P; therefore Q) is valid, fallacious extensions like assuming mutual exclusivity without justification mirror affirming a disjunct.

Examples

Common Examples

One common formal fallacy is , a propositional fallacy where the argument assumes that because the consequent of a conditional statement is true, the antecedent must also be true. Consider the example: "If it rains, the streets are wet. The streets are wet. Therefore, it rained." This form is invalid because the conclusion does not logically follow from the ; other factors, such as a sprinkler system, could wet the streets without rain, providing a where the premises are true but the conclusion false. Another frequent example is , also a propositional , which incorrectly concludes that if the antecedent of a conditional is false, the consequent must be false. For instance: "If you study hard, you will pass the exam. You did not study hard. Therefore, you will not pass the exam." The reasoning fails validity because alternative paths to exist, like natural aptitude, yielding a where the hold but the conclusion does not. In syllogistic logic, the undistributed middle occurs when the middle term in a categorical syllogism is not distributed in at least one premise, preventing a proper link between the major and minor terms. A typical case is: "All dogs are mammals. All cats are mammals. Therefore, all dogs are cats." This is invalid as the middle term "mammals" does not encompass the full extent needed to equate dogs and cats; a counterexample arises because both are mammals, yet they remain distinct species.

Special Examples

One notable example of an illicit process in syllogistic reasoning occurs when a term is distributed in the conclusion but not in the from which it is drawn, leading to an invalid inference. Consider the : "All A are B; no C are A; therefore no C are B." Here, the major term B is distributed in the conclusion (referring to all B) but undistributed in the first (which only asserts something about A in relation to B), violating the rule against illicit major process. Another intricate case involves the of exclusive premises, where both are negative, preventing any valid connection between the terms. For instance, the argument "No A are B; no B are C; therefore no A are C" fails because negative premises exclude overlap but do not establish a transitive relationship, rendering the conclusion unwarranted. In contrast, a valid requires at least one affirmative premise to link the middle term effectively. A related but distinct appears in attempts like "Some A are B; some B are C; therefore some A are C," where all premises are particular affirmatives without a negative to ensure distribution, but this primarily highlights issues in undistributed middles rather than pure exclusion. In extensions of propositional logic to modal systems, modal fallacies arise from mishandling operators like necessity (□) and possibility (◇). A classic instance is the invalid inference: "□(P → Q); P; therefore □Q," which confuses the necessity of the conditional with the necessity of the consequent upon affirming the antecedent. This error, often termed the modal fallacy, improperly transfers modality from the implication to the outcome, as the actualization of P does not necessitate Q in all possible worlds. Such fallacies are prevalent in arguments conflating de dicto and de re modalities. Quantificational import errors, particularly the existential fallacy, stem from assuming that universal statements carry existential commitments they lack in modern predicate logic. For example, treating "All A are B" as implying "Some A are B" presupposes the of A, which is not guaranteed; the universal can hold vacuously if no A exist. This contrasts with Aristotelian logic, where universals did import existence, but in Boolean interpretations, such subalternation is invalid, leading to flawed syllogisms with particular conclusions from two universals. Historically, identified the fallacy of the consequent—akin to —in his , where he critiques inferences that reverse conditional relations without justification. For example, from "If it rains, the ground is wet" and "the ground is wet," one cannot conclude "it rains," as notes this violates proper syllogistic form by assuming the antecedent from the consequent alone. This early recognition underscores the boundaries of deductive validity in conditional reasoning.

Applications and Distinctions

In Everyday Reasoning

Formal fallacies, particularly the non sequitur, frequently appear in everyday reasoning when individuals draw conclusions that do not logically follow from the given due to a structural disconnect in the argument. This type of error, often rooted in propositional logic invalidities, disrupts the inferential chain without relying on content-specific flaws. A common manifestation occurs in casual judgments about character, such as assuming success guarantees personal virtues. For instance, the statement "All in this field are successful; she is a in this field; therefore, she must be " exemplifies a non sequitur, as success does not logically entail honesty, representing an illicit assumption of implication. Similarly, in political , arguments like "If we implement this policy, will occur; we did not implement the policy; therefore, has not occurred" commit the fallacy of , invalidly concluding the negation of the consequent from the negation of the antecedent. Detecting formal fallacies in spoken involves identifying signs such as abrupt shifts to unsupported conclusions or mismatched and outcomes, which can undermine persuasive intent even if the argument appears superficially compelling. These errors persist in because listeners may overlook structural invalidity amid emotional or contextual appeals.

Versus Informal Fallacies

Informal fallacies represent errors in reasoning that stem from the specific content, relevance, or ambiguity of an argument, rather than from its underlying logical structure. Unlike formal fallacies, which invalidate an argument regardless of its premises, informal fallacies often occur in arguments with a valid form but flawed substance, such as the fallacy, where an attack on the arguer's character substitutes for engaging the argument itself, or the straw man fallacy, which misrepresents an opponent's position to make it easier to refute. These fallacies undermine the argument's persuasiveness through psychological manipulation, irrelevant appeals, or linguistic vagueness, without necessarily violating deductive rules. The primary distinction between formal and informal fallacies lies in their detectability and basis for invalidity: formal fallacies arise from structural defects in the argument's form, such as an invalid , and can be identified mechanically by substituting arbitrary terms to test for validity, confirming that the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises. In contrast, informal fallacies depend on contextual, psychological, or substantive flaws that require evaluating the argument's real-world application, such as assessing whether premises are truly relevant or if distorts meaning. This structural versus content-based divide means formal fallacies are testable through abstract logical analysis, while informal ones demand nuanced judgment of the argument's intent and circumstances. Occasional overlaps exist where informal fallacies produce effects resembling formal ones; for instance, the informal fallacy of —shifting the meaning of a key term mid-argument—can mimic the formal fallacy of the undistributed middle by rendering the shared term insufficiently specific, thus invalidating the syllogism's structure in practice. Such boundary cases highlight how content-based errors can indirectly compromise form, blurring the lines in complex arguments. For analysis, formal fallacies lend themselves to mechanical detection via logical diagrams or truth tables, enabling systematic identification without deep content scrutiny, whereas informal fallacies necessitate contextual evaluation, considering factors like audience assumptions or rhetorical intent, which complicates objective assessment. Historically, formal fallacies trace back to Aristotle's development of syllogistic logic in works like the , where invalid forms were systematically critiqued. Informal fallacies, however, saw expanded classification in modern logic, notably through Irving Copi's Introduction to Logic (first published in 1953, with influential editions in the 1950s and 1960s), which cataloged numerous content-based errors to address everyday reasoning beyond strict deduction.

References

  1. https://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/nature_fall.html
  2. https://academics.uccs.edu/rgist/ID/ID1050/resources/Presentations/PDFs/U4_Week12_LogicalFallacies.pdf
  3. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/
  4. https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/
  5. https://iep.utm.edu/aristotle-logic/
  6. https://iep.utm.edu/val-snd/
  7. https://philosophy.institute/logic/impact-formal-fallacies-logical-arguments
  8. http://www2.hawaii.edu/~srowe/Logicwebpage/2013LogicTechniques_&_Strategies.pdf
  9. https://rintintin.colorado.edu/~vancecd/phil1440/syllogisms.pdf
  10. https://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/syllogism_topics.html
  11. https://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/syll_fall.html
  12. https://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/illicit_fall.html
  13. https://phil240.tamu.edu/LectureNotes/6.5.pdf
  14. https://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/existential_fall.html
  15. https://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~stark/SticiGui/Text/logic.htm
  16. http://homepage.divms.uiowa.edu/~hzhang/c188/notes/ch01b-Fallacy.pdf
  17. https://beisecker.faculty.unlv.edu/Courses/Phi-102/HypotheticalSyllogisms.htm
  18. https://calvin.edu/sites/default/files/2025-05/2_Truth-Table-Exercises.pdf
  19. https://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~stark/SticiGui/Text/reasoning.htm
  20. https://scholarworks.smith.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=2&article=1000&context=textbooks&type=additional
  21. https://www.physics.smu.edu/pseudo/examples_logic.html
  22. https://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/exclusive_fall.html
  23. https://www.sfu.ca/~swartz/modal_fallacy.htm
  24. https://homepage.divms.uiowa.edu/~hzhang/c188/notes/ch01b-Fallacy.pdf
  25. https://dgibbs.faculty.arizona.edu/sites/dgibbs.faculty.arizona.edu/files/ClassNotes150c6.pdf
  26. https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/fallacies/
  27. https://www.unr.edu/writing-speaking-center/writing-speaking-resources/logical-fallacies
  28. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/
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