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An irrelevant conclusion,[1] also known as ignoratio elenchi (Latin for 'ignoring refutation') or missing the point, is the informal fallacy of presenting an argument whose conclusion fails to address the issue in question. It falls into the broad class of relevance fallacies.[2]

The irrelevant conclusion should not be confused with formal fallacy, an argument whose conclusion does not follow from its premises; instead, it is that despite its formal consistency it is not relevant to the subject being talked about.

Overview

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Ignoratio elenchi is one of the fallacies identified by Aristotle in his Organon. In a broader sense he asserted that all fallacies are a form of ignoratio elenchi.[3][4]

Ignoratio Elenchi, according to Aristotle, is a fallacy that arises from "ignorance of the nature of refutation". To refute an assertion, Aristotle says we must prove its contradictory; the proof, consequently, of a proposition which stood in any other relation than that to the original, would be an ignoratio elenchi. Since Aristotle, the scope of the fallacy has been extended to include all cases of proving the wrong point ... "I am required to prove a certain conclusion; I prove, not that, but one which is likely to be mistaken for it; in that lies the fallacy ... For instance, instead of proving that 'this person has committed an atrocious fraud', you prove that 'this fraud he is accused of is atrocious'"; ... The nature of the fallacy, then, consists in substituting for a certain issue another which is more or less closely related to it and arguing the substituted issue. The fallacy does not take into account whether the arguments do or do not really support the substituted issue, it only calls attention to the fact that they do not constitute proof of the original one… It is a particularly prevalent and subtle fallacy and it assumes a great variety of forms. But whenever it occurs and whatever form it takes, it is brought about by an assumption that leads the person guilty of it to substitute for a definite subject of inquiry another which is in close relation with it.[5]

— Arthur Ernest Davies, "Fallacies" in A Text-Book of Logic

Samuel Johnson's unique "refutation" of Bishop Berkeley's immaterialism, his claim that matter did not actually exist but only seemed to exist,[6] has been described as ignoratio elenchi:[7] during a conversation with Boswell, Johnson powerfully kicked a nearby stone and proclaimed of Berkeley's theory, "I refute it thus!"[8] (See also argumentum ad lapidem.)

A related concept is that of the red herring, which is a deliberate attempt to divert a process of enquiry by changing the subject.[2] Ignoratio elenchi is sometimes confused with straw man argument.[2]

Etymology

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The phrase ignoratio elenchi is from Latin 'an ignoring of a refutation'. Here elenchi is the genitive singular of the Latin noun elenchus, which is from Ancient Greek ἔλεγχος (elenchos) 'an argument of disproof or refutation'.[9] The translation in English of the Latin expression has varied somewhat. Hamblin proposed "misconception of refutation" or "ignorance of refutation" as a literal translation,[10] John Arthur Oesterle preferred "ignoring the issue", and[10] Irving Copi, Christopher Tindale and others used "irrelevant conclusion".[10][11]

See also

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Look up ignoratio elenchi in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Irrelevant conclusion

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from Grokipedia
The irrelevant conclusion, also known as ignoratio elenchi (Latin for "ignorance of the refutation"), is an informal logical fallacy in which an argument's premises appear to support a conclusion, but that conclusion fails to address or refute the specific issue or thesis at hand, instead proving an unrelated or tangential point. This fallacy occurs when the reasoning misses the target of the debate, often due to a misunderstanding of the refutation required or a deliberate shift in focus, rendering the argument evidentially irrelevant despite potentially being formally valid. Originating in 's Sophistical Refutations, it represents a core category of sophistical tactics where a deduction succeeds in proving something different from the opponent's thesis, such as attributing properties incorrectly or assuming non-reversible consequences. Historically, classified ignoratio elenchi as the unifying principle behind several apparent refutations that lack true contradictory opposition, emphasizing that a genuine refutation must derive from granted premises while maintaining the same terms, relations, and context. In modern terms, it encompasses forms like the traditional (where the conclusion simply does not follow the premises' intent), the dialogical (proving a point irrelevant to the ongoing dispute), and the practical (a broad catch-all for relevance failures in everyday discourse). For instance, responding to a claim about the utility of studying logic by noting that many successful people reason intuitively without formal training commits this , as it proves informal reasoning's effectiveness but ignores whether logic enhances it. The is particularly prevalent in debates, legal arguments, and political , where it can distract or mislead by marshaling valid for a "wrong conclusion" that psychologically persuades without advancing the core issue. Scholars like Douglas Walton describe it as a violation of argumentative relevance, where the proponent advances premises that support an unintended outcome, hindering fair dialogue. Related but distinct from red herrings or fallacies, the irrelevant conclusion specifically involves a genuine but misplaced proof, often requiring careful analysis of intent to identify. Detecting and avoiding it promotes clearer by ensuring arguments directly engage the in question.

Definition and Characteristics

Core Definition

The irrelevant conclusion fallacy, also known as ignoratio elenchi, is an informal logical in which the of an appear to support a conclusion that fails to address or resolve the original issue or question under discussion. This occurs when the proves a point that is logically coherent on its own but diverts from the intended refutation or thesis, effectively missing the mark of relevance. Classified as a relevance fallacy, it falls within the broader category of informal logical fallacies, which evaluate the substantive content and contextual fit of an argument rather than its abstract form. Unlike formal fallacies, which invalidate an argument due to errors in deductive structure or logical validity (such as affirming the consequent), the irrelevant conclusion focuses on the argumentative structure's failure to pertain to the purported goal, even if the reasoning within the premises-conclusion link is deductively sound. At its core, the 's structure involves premises that lead to a conclusion valid in isolation—meaning the inference might hold if isolated from context—but that conclusion remains irrelevant to the argument's objective, such as refuting an opponent's position or answering a specific query. This makes it a specific instance of the broader non sequitur category, where the conclusion does not logically follow due to a disconnect in relevance.

Key Features and Classification

The irrelevant conclusion , also known as ignoratio elenchi, is characterized by an argument that establishes a conclusion different from the one at issue, thereby failing to address or refute the intended point despite potentially valid premises. This misdirection often renders the reasoning superficially persuasive, as the premises may hold truth and logical coherence on their own terms but diverge from the disputed question. The fallacy hinges on a disconnect between the argument's aim and its actual outcome, where the proponent inadvertently or deliberately shifts focus to an adjacent but non-responsive claim. Detection of this fallacy requires careful scrutiny of contextual relevance, as its subtlety lies in premises that appear pertinent while supporting an unrelated resolution. True premises can mislead evaluators into overlooking the misalignment, especially in complex discourses where the core issue becomes obscured. Psychologically, it frequently stems from a misunderstanding of the opponent's position or a subtle evasion of the burden of proof, exploiting cognitive biases toward apparent logical flow without rigorous verification. In logical taxonomy, ignoratio elenchi—also known as the irrelevant conclusion—broadly encompasses "ignorance of refutation" and is positioned within the category of relevance fallacies. This grouping includes errors like ad hominem attacks and appeals to emotion, all of which undermine argumentation through irrelevance rather than invalid inference or factual inaccuracy. Unlike formal fallacies, which involve structural flaws in deductive reasoning, relevance fallacies such as this one emphasize dialectical failure in addressing the thesis directly, making them central to informal logic analyses.

Historical and Etymological Background

Origins in Classical Logic

The fallacy of irrelevant conclusion, termed ignoratio elenchi in Latin, finds its earliest systematic identification in 's Sophistical Refutations, composed around 350 BCE, where it is presented as a type of sophistical refutation that fails to address the thesis at issue by establishing an unrelated point instead. defines a true refutation as a that contradicts the original ; thus, any that proves something in a different relation—such as a mere consequence or collateral matter—commits this error by ignoring the refutation (elenchos) required. A representative example from Aristotle illustrates this in dialectical disputes, where an opponent might prove a minor or incidental claim (e.g., that a person has done something blameworthy in general) rather than refuting the major thesis (e.g., that the specific action in question was unjust), thereby missing the point and appearing to win the argument fallaciously. During the medieval period, the fallacy was integrated into scholastic logic, with figures like William of Sherwood in the 13th century providing examples and analyses of ignoratio elenchi in works on logical fallacies, building on Aristotelian categories.

Evolution of the Term

The Latin term ignoratio elenchi, translating to "ignorance of the refutation" or "missing the point," developed in late medieval and logic as a of from Aristotle's Sophistical Refutations, with its earliest recorded use in the mid-16th century. This nomenclature emphasized the dialogical nature of the , where a proof succeeds on its own terms but diverts from the refutation required. In the , the English equivalent "irrelevant conclusion" gained prominence, particularly in John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic (1843), which classified it among fallacies of observation and applied it to cases of argumentative misdirection, highlighting how premises lead to a conclusion unconnected to the in question. Mill's treatment, influenced by Richard Whately's earlier work, shifted focus toward the practical irrelevance in and rhetorical discourse, marking a transition from purely formal analysis to broader informal applications. The 20th century saw further refinements in textbooks, exemplified by Irving M. Copi's Introduction to Logic (1953), which positioned "irrelevant conclusion" within fallacies of , distinguishing it from deductive invalidity by stressing its occurrence in everyday argumentation where premises psychologically suggest but logically fail to support the intended point. Copi's framework helped standardize its pedagogical role, integrating it into analyses of non-formal errors. Contemporary usage retains "irrelevant conclusion" as largely synonymous with "missing the point" in philosophical and rhetorical studies, where it denotes any diversionary proof. In legal contexts, it manifests as "irrelevant objection," referring to evidentiary or argumentative submissions that sidestep the material issue without advancing the case.

Types and Subvariants

Red Herring Variant

The red herring represents a deliberate subtype of the irrelevant conclusion fallacy, wherein an arguer introduces an unrelated issue or topic to divert attention away from the core argument or question at hand. This diversion often involves shifting focus to a seemingly tangential matter that may appear superficially relevant but ultimately fails to engage with the original claim. For instance, in response to a critique of a proposed policy on environmental regulations, an opponent might pivot to attacking the critic's personal financial ties to green industries, thereby sidetracking the discussion without addressing the policy's merits. The mechanism of the operates by creating a misleading "false trail" that draws the audience's attention elsewhere, much like the historical use of a strongly scented smoked to throw off the scent-tracking abilities of dogs during fox hunts. The term's etymological origin traces back to 19th-century , where it was popularized in 1807 by English writer , who recounted, in a story from his youth, using a to divert hounds from the trail of a , thereby popularizing its figurative sense as a tactic. This analogy underscores how the exploits emotional or superficial engagement to obscure the primary issue, often fostering confusion or emotional responses that prolong the evasion. Logically, the structure of a involves that substantiate the distracting element but remain entirely disconnected from supporting or refuting the intended conclusion of the original . Unlike accidental errors, this is frequently intentional in rhetorical settings, such as debates or negotiations, where the goal is to maintain control of the by avoiding direct while appearing responsive. The thus validate a secondary claim—potentially one that is true or appealing—but this validation does not advance the resolution of the initial contention, rendering the overall reasoning invalid. Identification of a red herring typically hinges on observing sudden, unprompted topic shifts that evade the posed question or argument without explicit denial, often accompanied by emphatic advocacy for the new subject to sustain the distraction. Such maneuvers can be spotted by tracing whether the introduced material logically connects back to the original point; if it does not, and serves primarily to redirect energy, it signals this variant of irrelevance. As a form of , the broadly undermines argumentative integrity by prioritizing diversion over substantive discourse.

Straw Man Variant

The straw man variant of the irrelevant conclusion fallacy occurs when an arguer misrepresents an opponent's position by distorting or exaggerating it into a weaker, more easily refutable form, then attacks this fabricated version instead of the original claim. This misrepresentation substitutes the actual argument with an artificial "straw man," ensuring the refutation misses the point and yields an irrelevant victory. For instance, if a proponent suggests modest tax increases to fund public education, the straw man response might caricature it as a scheme to "steal everyone's money," refuting the extreme distortion rather than the moderate proposal. The mechanism behind this variant relies on rhetorical deception to create an illusion of success in ; by addressing a position the opponent does not hold, the arguer avoids the intellectual challenge of the real argument while appearing to have dismantled it. This tactic exploits the audience's potential lack of familiarity with the original claim, diverting attention from substantive issues through the ease of knocking down the simplified target. In terms of logical structure, the straw man proceeds by constructing premises that effectively refute the misrepresented argument but fail to engage the opponent's actual premises or conclusion, resulting in a non sequitur where the "win" bears no relevance to the dispute at hand. Symbolically, if the original argument is P (premises) implying Q (conclusion), the fallacy replaces it with P' (distorted premises) implying Q', then refutes P' without touching P or Q. Subtle forms of include partial quoting, where key qualifiers are omitted to weaken the opponent's stance, or selective interpretation that amplifies minor elements into an extreme position, thereby building a false target through apparent fidelity to the source material. Such techniques maintain a veneer of fairness while ensuring the refutation remains irrelevant to the unaltered argument.

Examples and Applications

Everyday and Rhetorical Examples

One common everyday example of the irrelevant conclusion occurs in discussions about environmental policies, such as promoting to reduce and . When an focuses on the ecological benefits of , a counter-response might claim, "But widespread programs could lead to job losses in the industry," introducing an economic that, while potentially valid on its own, does not refute or engage with the environmental rationale. In rhetorical contexts like , this appears when marketers emphasize that a product is "all-" to conclude it is inherently healthier or superior, bypassing the need for on its actual or compared to synthetic alternatives. For instance, a supplement might be touted as to imply benefits, yet natural composition alone does not substantiate claims about or therapeutic effects, rendering the conclusion irrelevant to the product's . A relatable conversational instance arises in parent-child interactions, where a inquires about unfinished , prompting the to reply, "But I already helped with the chores around the house," shifting focus to unrelated contributions without addressing the specific issue of academic tasks. This diversion, often a subtype, evades the original query by introducing a tangential point. In each of these scenarios, the offered may hold some truth—economic impacts exist, natural products can be appealing, and chores contribute to household duties—but they fail to logically support or rebut the initial argument or question, highlighting how the irrelevant conclusion subtly undermines in routine settings.

Instances in Politics and Media

In the second presidential of the 2020 U.S. election cycle on October 22, former President was pressed on economic recovery efforts and the need for additional stimulus funding amid the . Rather than outlining specific for job creation or support, Trump shifted the focus to , asserting that the Democratic-backed package would divert funds to undocumented immigrants and encourage further influxes at the border, claiming, "Everybody all over the world will start pouring into our country." This response exemplified an irrelevant conclusion, as the immigration tangent did not address the validity or structure of the economic aid proposal, instead introducing an extraneous issue to deflect from policy scrutiny. Media coverage of climate change has occasionally employed similar diversions by emphasizing celebrity endorsements over empirical data. For instance, some outlets have highlighted high-profile figures like or Al Gore's advocacy to underscore the urgency of the issue, implying that widespread celebrity support equates to on human-caused global warming. However, this approach commits an irrelevant conclusion by substituting popularity among non-experts for peer-reviewed evidence from climate scientists, such as rising global temperatures and CO2 levels documented by the , thereby undermining rigorous analysis of environmental data. Such framing prioritizes persuasive appeal over substantive validation, potentially misleading audiences on the fallacy's role in public discourse. A historical appears in 19th-century British parliamentary debates surrounding the , protective tariffs on imported grain that restricted . Opponents of reform frequently diverted attention to colonial trade dynamics, arguing that would disadvantage British colonies by flooding markets with cheaper foreign grain and undermining imperial economic ties. This tactic ignored the primary debate on domestic affordability and agricultural efficiency, introducing colonial preferences as an irrelevant counterpoint that did not refute the economic case for reform. The eventual in highlighted how such diversions prolonged protectionist policies amid growing industrial pressures. The impact of irrelevant conclusions in and media extends to amplifying , particularly in high-stakes campaigns. During the 2024 U.S. , candidates accused of or ethical lapses often responded by touting unrelated accomplishments, such as economic expansions or gains, to sidestep . For example, amid ongoing legal challenges involving , former President Trump emphasized his administration's pre-pandemic economic record and absence of new wars, stating in campaign rallies that voters should focus on these successes rather than "witch hunts." This strategy evades direct rebuttal of the claims, fostering confusion and eroding in institutional oversight, as evidenced by increased polarization and diminished focus on verified issues.

Relations to Other Fallacies

Distinctions from Non Sequitur

The non sequitur fallacy occurs when a conclusion does not logically follow from the given premises, often due to a lack of relevant connection or an invalid deductive structure. This broad category encompasses various errors in reasoning where the inference fails to hold, such as through , invalid syllogisms, or unrelated assertions. In contrast, the irrelevant conclusion, or ignoratio elenchi, specifically involves presenting an argument that proves a point tangential to the disputed issue, thereby missing the original contention without necessarily invalidating the logic of the premises themselves. This fallacy emphasizes misdirection in an argumentative context, where the response addresses a side issue or alternative proposition rather than refuting or supporting the thesis at hand. A key distinction lies in their scope and focus: while a non sequitur can arise from any deductive failure, including formal invalidity or mere non-relevance, the irrelevant conclusion requires a dialectical setting where an ostensibly relevant but ultimately off-target proof is offered. For instance, a non sequitur might claim, "It is raining outside, therefore the economy is booming," where the premise bears no logical relation to the conclusion. By , an irrelevant conclusion could respond to a query about whether should be banned due to risks with, "It would harm tobacco farmers' livelihoods," which proves an economic point but misses the . Both share roots in failures of , as they undermine argumentative validity by disconnecting from conclusions, but the irrelevant conclusion demands an established argumentative context with a specific issue under dispute, whereas non sequiturs can occur in isolation without such a framework. This nuanced boundary highlights how irrelevant conclusions often masquerade as pertinent rebuttals within broader fallacies.

Overlaps with Broader Relevance Fallacies

The irrelevant conclusion fallacy, also known as ignoratio elenchi, shares significant overlaps with other relevance fallacies, as both categories involve introducing material that diverts attention from the core argument without addressing its validity. In particular, it intersects with the fallacy, where the latter attacks the character, motives, or circumstances of the arguer rather than engaging of their position, rendering the response irrelevant to the conclusion at hand. While ad hominem constitutes a specific tactic of personal irrelevance, it can serve as a tool within a broader irrelevant conclusion by shifting focus away from the argument's merits to extraneous personal details. Another key connection exists with the appeal to pity (argumentum ad misericordiam), a pathos-based that evokes or emotional distress on unrelated grounds to influence the audience toward an unsupported conclusion. This emotional diversion mirrors the misdirection in irrelevant conclusion, as both prioritize affective manipulation over logical relevance, such as pleading hardship to excuse wrongdoing without evidence of . The also links closely, involving the dismissal or acceptance of an idea based solely on its origin or source, which is irrelevant to its actual merit or . In this overlap, irrelevant conclusion can manifest through genetic reasoning by rejecting an argument due to its proponent's background, thereby proving a tangential point about rather than the claim itself. Misclassification risks arise because irrelevant conclusion often encompasses tactics like the , which introduces distracting irrelevancies, or the straw man, which distorts the opponent's position to refute an easier target, leading to scholarly debates on whether it functions as an umbrella term for such relevance errors. These overlaps highlight the 's broad applicability in argumentative misdirection, though distinctions in intent and focus prevent full equivalence.

Detection and Mitigation

Methods for Identification

To identify an irrelevant conclusion fallacy, also known as ignoratio elenchi, begin by clearly delineating the core issue or question at the heart of the argument. This involves isolating the primary thesis or claim being advanced or challenged, such as determining whether a effectively reduces or whether a scientific withstands empirical scrutiny. According to Douglas Walton's dialectical framework, the initial step requires examining the dialogue's goal to ensure the argument's focus aligns with resolving the specific contention rather than a peripheral matter. Once the core issue is established, evaluate whether the proffered conclusion directly addresses it or instead veers into a tangential point. This assessment checks for evidential relevance by comparing the argument's premises and conclusion against the original thesis: if the premises support a different outcome—such as proving a general principle when a specific application is needed—the fallacy is present. For instance, in a debate over whether a defendant committed a theft, responding with evidence of their overall good character addresses honesty broadly but fails to tackle the incident in question. Diagnostic questions can sharpen this evaluation. Ask: "Does this conclusion prove or refute the claimed thesis?" or "Is the response evading the specific refutation required?" These probes reveal misdirection, as when an argument shifts from addressing a policy's efficacy to its proponents' motives, thereby ignoring the substantive issue. Practical tools aid in visualizing these disconnects. Argument mapping, for example, diagrams premises leading to conclusions, highlighting topic shifts or gaps where the path diverges from the core issue; this technique, rooted in informal logic analysis, exposes irrelevance by tracing logical flow. Additionally, scrutinize for misrepresented claims, such as in the straw man variant, where the conclusion targets a distorted version of the original position rather than the actual one—though this should be noted only as a cue within the broader relevance check.

Strategies for Avoidance in Arguments

One effective strategy for avoiding the irrelevant conclusion fallacy in arguments involves restating the opponent's position accurately before formulating a response, which ensures that the reply directly addresses the core issue at hand. This technique promotes clarity and by confirming mutual understanding of the debate's focus, thereby preventing inadvertent shifts to tangential matters. Another structured approach is employing the Toulmin model of argumentation, which explicitly aligns claims with supporting data and warrants to demonstrate logical connections, thereby minimizing the risk of drawing unrelated conclusions. Developed by philosopher , this framework requires articulating the claim (the conclusion), grounds (evidence), and warrant (the reasoning linking them), along with qualifiers and rebuttals as needed, fostering arguments where each element pertinently supports the intended outcome. Practical tips for implementation include, in debates, pausing to confirm the precise question or claim being addressed before proceeding, which helps maintain focus on pertinent responses. In written arguments, outlining the beforehand allows verification that all tie directly to the conclusion, reducing opportunities for irrelevance to creep in. Educational approaches, such as integrating training into curricula, further cultivate awareness of relevance by teaching students to distinguish pertinent from extraneous information in reasoning processes, thereby decreasing unintentional instances of the over time. Programs emphasizing these skills, often through exercises in evaluating argument components, have been shown to enhance overall logical rigor in .

References

  1. https://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/ignoratio.html
  2. https://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/sophist_refut.1.1.html
  3. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Douglas_Walton/publication/243765154_Informal_Logic_A_Handbook_for_Critical_Argumentation/links/5fc39613299bf104cf90477c/Informal-Logic-A-Handbook-for-Critical-Argumentation.pdf
  4. https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~degray/I2LR11-spring/Lecture23.pdf
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  6. https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/
  7. https://www.thecollector.com/logical-fallacies-aristotle-sophistical-refutations/
  8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315872607_Ignoratio_Elenchi_The_Red_Herring_Fallacy
  9. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ignoratio%20elenchi
  10. https://oll-resources.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/titles/247/Mill_0223-08_EBk_v6.0.pdf
  11. https://www.academia.edu/42185514/Introduction_to_Logic
  12. https://legal-resources.uslegalforms.com/i/ignoratio-elenchi
  13. https://www.txst.edu/philosophy/resources/fallacy-definitions/red-herring.html
  14. https://www.scribbr.com/fallacies/red-herring-fallacy/
  15. https://www.fallacyfiles.org/redherrf.html
  16. https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/562812/where-did-phrase-red-herring-originate
  17. https://www.logicallyfallacious.com/logicalfallacies/Red-Herring
  18. https://www.csus.edu/indiv/d/dowdenb/4/logical-reasoning-archives/Logical-Reasoning-2020-05-15.pdf
  19. https://owl.excelsior.edu/argument-and-critical-thinking/logical-fallacies/logical-fallacies-straw-man/
  20. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/logic_in_argumentative_writing/fallacies.html
  21. https://www.fallacyfiles.org/adnature.html
  22. https://www.debates.org/voter-education/debate-transcripts/october-22-2020-debate-transcript/
  23. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/5-takeaways-from-the-final-trump-biden-debate
  24. https://www.scribbr.com/fallacies/appeal-to-authority-fallacy/
  25. https://iiraorg.com/2022/06/12/celebrities-and-climate-change/
  26. https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/tradeindustry/industrycommunity/overview/19thcentury/
  27. https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-corn-laws/
  28. https://www.the-independent.com/news/world/americas/us-politics/trump-civil-fraud-trial-presidential-campaign-b2497498.html
  29. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/oct/07/trump-big-donors-corruption-musk
  30. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/historical_perspectives_on_argumentation/toulmin_argument.html
  31. https://www.owens.edu/writing/argument/
  32. https://virtualspeech.com/blog/guide-to-debating
  33. https://www.utc.edu/document/20391
  34. https://www.coloradomesa.edu/assessment/documents/criticalthinking-unmasked-supplmat.pdf
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