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Lunette
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A lunette (French lunette, 'little moon') is a crescent- or half-moon–shaped or semi-circular architectural space or feature, variously filled with sculpture, painted, glazed, filled with recessed masonry, or void. A lunette may also be segmental, and the arch may be an arc taken from an oval. A lunette window is commonly called a half-moon window, or fanlight when bars separating its panes fan out radially.
If a door is set within a round-headed arch, the space within the arch above the door, masonry or glass is a lunette. If the door is a major access, and the lunette above is massive and deeply set, it may be called a tympanum.
A lunette is also formed when a horizontal cornice transects a round-headed arch at the level of the imposts, where the arch springs. If the top of the lunette itself is bordered by a hood mould it can also be considered a pediment.
The term is also employed to describe the section of interior wall between the curves of a vault and its springing line. A system of intersecting vaults produces lunettes on the wall surfaces above a cornice. The lunettes in the structure of the Sistine Chapel ceiling inspired Michelangelo to come up with inventive compositions for the spaces.
In the Neoclassical architecture of Robert Adam and his French contemporaries such as Ange-Jacques Gabriel, a favorite scheme set a series of windows within shallow blind arches. The lunettes above lent themselves to radiating motifs: a sunburst of bellflower husks, radiating fluting, a low vase of flowers, etc.
The Flemish painter Giusto Utens rendered a series of Medicean villas in lunette form for the third grand duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando I, in 1599–1602.[1]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Mignani, Daniela (1995) [1991]. The Medicean Villas by Giusto Utens (2nd ed.). Florence: Arnaud. ISBN 88-8015-000-6.
External links
[edit]
Media related to Lunettes at Wikimedia Commons- Lunette on Encyclopaedia Britannica
Lunette
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Architectural Use
Lunettes trace their origins to ancient Roman architecture, where they functioned as arched apertures in basilicas and public buildings to provide illumination and aesthetic enhancement.[3] During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, they gained prominence as spaces for elaborate frescoes and panels, integrating seamlessly with vaulted ceilings and enhancing spatial drama in churches and palaces.[3] A notable example is the series of lunettes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512, which depict ancestors of Christ and feature dynamic compositions tailored to the curved surfaces.[4] In later styles, such as Neoclassical and 19th-century designs, lunettes continued to appear in grand halls and institutional buildings, either as terminating elements in barrel vaults or integrated into coves for decorative or functional purposes.[3]Military Use
In fortification design, lunettes evolved from early outworks of half-moon shape in European trace italienne systems of the 16th and 17th centuries, providing advanced defensive positions for artillery.[5] By the 19th century, they were commonly employed as independent earthworks resembling a redan but with more pronounced flanks, offering enfilading fire while remaining connected to primary lines.[2] Prominent examples include the lunettes at the Battle of Stones River in 1862–1863, such as Lunette Thomas and Lunette Palmer, which formed key Confederate strongpoints with capacity for troops and artillery during the American Civil War.[6] These structures underscored the lunette's role in adapting to terrain for efficient, low-cost defense.[2]Etymology and Terminology
Origin of the Term
The term "lunette" derives from the French word lunette, a diminutive form of lune meaning "moon," which traces back to the Latin luna. This linguistic root emphasizes the term's evocation of the moon's crescent or half-moon shape, applied metaphorically to curved architectural elements resembling a lunar arc.[7][8] Introduced to English in the 16th century through architectural treatises influenced by Renaissance scholarship, "lunette" first appeared around the 1570s denoting a general half-moon-shaped object, with applications to semi-circular forms in fortifications emerging in the early 17th century and to building features in the 18th century. This adoption paralleled the era's revival of classical antiquity, drawing from Italian precedents like lunetta—used in Renaissance contexts for semi-circular spaces above doors or in vaults—and translations of Vitruvius' De architectura, which described analogous curved motifs in classical architecture.[7] By the 17th century, the term gained prominence in French architectural literature, as seen in Claude Perrault's 1673 translation of Vitruvius, where lunette denoted arched openings, reinforcing its connection to lunar-inspired proportions in classical design.[8]Related Architectural Vocabulary
The term lunette in architecture is closely related to but distinct from oculus, which denotes a full circular opening or window, often positioned at the apex of a dome or in a wall to admit light, evoking the shape of an eye.[9] In contrast, a lunette specifically describes a semi-circular or crescent-shaped space or feature, emphasizing its half-moon profile.[10] Similarly, the spandrel refers to the roughly triangular area bounded by the curve of an arch and the rectangular frame enclosing it, or the panel between successive arches and the horizontal element above, serving primarily as a structural or decorative infill rather than a defined opening.[11] Another associated term is tympanum, which designates the vertical, recessed space—typically triangular in pediments or semi-circular above a door lintel and arch—often filled with sculpture or relief; unlike the lunette's inherently curved form, the tympanum can be flat or arched but is more commonly associated with triangular configurations in classical and Romanesque contexts.[12] The integration of lunette into English architectural vocabulary evolved during the 18th century, appearing in period glossaries as a borrowed French term denoting a small moon-like recess or panel.[13] This terminological development helped clarify overlaps with terms like oculus and tympanum, distinguishing the lunette's specific semi-circular geometry amid broader discussions of arched and framed spaces.[14]Architectural Features
Openings in Vaults and Domes
In architecture, lunettes serve as semi-circular openings integrated into the curved surfaces of barrel vaults and domes, primarily to admit natural light into otherwise enclosed interiors while preserving the overall structural integrity of the vaulted system. These openings, often glazed or fitted with tracery, allow diffuse illumination to penetrate deep into spaces without compromising the load-bearing capacity of the masonry, as the semi-circular form distributes forces evenly across the surrounding arch. For instance, in barrel vaults, lunettes are formed at the intersections of cylindrical surfaces, enabling light to filter through while the vault's compression-based design maintains stability. This functional role is evident in historical designs where lunettes counteract lateral thrusts, reducing the need for excessive buttressing.[15][16] Construction techniques for lunettes in vaults, particularly during the Baroque period, involve precise integration using wedge-shaped voussoirs—tapered stones that lock into place under compression to form the arch of the opening. Baroque architects, such as Guarino Guarini, advanced this by employing geometric "cuts" in main barrel or cloister vaults to create lunette forms, often combining intersecting cylinders of varying radii for complex, self-supporting profiles that enhance both aesthetics and engineering efficiency. This method ensured seamless transitions between the lunette and the parent vault, minimizing material use while upholding load distribution.[17][16] The crescent shape of lunettes, derived from the French term for "little moon," underscores their role in mimicking lunar curves within vault geometries, as briefly noted in treatises on vault intersections.[16]Spaces Above Doors and Windows
In architecture, lunettes function as semi-circular recesses or framed panels integrated into flat walls directly above door lintels or window heads, enhancing the overall composition and proportional harmony of facades. These elements often mirror the curved arch of the opening below, creating visual symmetry and continuity in the design.[18][19] The proportions of such lunettes adhere to classical principles, as exemplified in Palladian architecture where symmetry and mathematical harmony govern facade elements.[20][21] In these designs, the lunette's width typically matches or complements the portal's scale, contributing to the rhythmic ordering of elevations without overwhelming the structure. Early precedents for lunettes in this context appear in 14th-century Italian church facades, where they were infilled with stone to form durable, integral parts of the masonry.[22] Later variations incorporated stucco or plaster for smoother finishes and greater adaptability in non-structural applications. These spaces occasionally admit light when glazed, subtly illuminating adjacent interiors.[23]Decorative and Sculptural Applications
Lunettes provide unique curved surfaces that have inspired artists to explore artistic expression through reliefs, frescoes, and mosaics, capitalizing on the semi-circular form to integrate decoration seamlessly with architecture. The shape encourages compositions that embrace the arc, allowing for fluid lines and dynamic perspectives that flat panels cannot achieve. In Roman architecture, lunettes often featured sculptural details and frescoes depicting narrative scenes, blending structural elements with ornamental motifs to enhance spatial harmony.[24] Common motifs in lunette decorations frequently draw on celestial or mythological themes, exploiting the lunar-inspired curvature to evoke heavenly or divine narratives. For instance, Renaissance frescoes by Pinturicchio in the Vatican’s Borgia Apartments incorporate mythological scenes, such as the Egyptian myths of Isis, Osiris, and the bull Apis, rendered across the vaulted lunettes and ceilings to symbolize resurrection and cosmic order. These compositions leverage the lunette's arc to frame ethereal figures against starry or atmospheric backgrounds, merging pagan iconography with Christian symbolism in a manner reflective of late 15th-century humanism.[25][26] Techniques for decorating lunettes required adaptations from flat painting, notably the use of perspective foreshortening to compensate for the curved surface and maintain visual coherence from below. In 16th-century Vatican examples, such as Michelangelo's lunettes depicting the Ancestors of Christ in the Sistine Chapel, figures are dramatically shortened and positioned to appear projected outward, countering the vault's convexity and creating an illusion of depth within the confined arc. This method, combined with buon fresco application on damp plaster, ensured durability while allowing artists to simulate architectural extensions through painted ignudi and medallions. Notable 18th-century neoclassical applications elevated lunettes as ideal settings for relief sculptures, where the form accentuated classical restraint and elegance. Antonio Canova's bas-reliefs, such as those depicting mythological subjects like the Death of Priam, were designed for integration into arched panels, employing shallow carving to evoke ancient Greek and Roman prototypes while harmonizing with surrounding architecture. These works emphasized idealized forms and subtle narrative depth, often placed in ecclesiastical or palatial interiors to convey moral and heroic ideals.[27][28]Fortifications
Design and Structure
A lunette functions as an independent fortification element, typically constructed as a detached earthwork or masonry structure featuring two faces that form a salient angle, with the rear left open for access and support from main defenses. This configuration is flanked by protective ditches and a glacis, enabling enfilade fire to sweep approaching attackers and minimize covered approaches. The design emphasizes a crescent profile to ensure overlapping fields of fire without dead angles, often incorporating embrasures for artillery and earthen parapets 12 to 18 feet thick to absorb incoming projectiles.[6][29][30] Dimensions of lunettes varied according to tactical requirements and terrain, but field examples commonly spanned 50 to 100 meters in width and depth, with walls rising 15 feet high and up to 25 feet thick in earthworks to support batteries of several guns. Shallower profiles—often 40 meters deep—facilitated rapid construction and all-around defense. These proportions allowed for integration with trench lines or breastworks, prioritizing defensive coverage over permanence.[6][30] Lunettes originated as outworks in the trace italienne fortification systems of the 16th century, evolving alongside bastions and ravelins to address the vulnerabilities of medieval walls against artillery. In these early modern designs, lunettes provided advanced salients for enfilading fire, adapting the geometric precision of Italian engineers to create layered defenses that projected firepower outward. By the 17th and 18th centuries, engineers like Vauban refined their structure within bastioned traces, incorporating caponiers in ditches and casemated elements for enhanced protection, marking a shift toward more tactical, adaptable fieldworks.[30][31]Historical Development and Examples
The lunette, as a detached outwork in fortification design, emerged in the early 16th century as part of the trace italienne system developed by Italian engineers to counter the destructive power of gunpowder artillery during the Italian Wars and subsequent Habsburg-Ottoman conflicts. These designs emphasized low, crescent-shaped earthworks with short flanks to provide enfilading fire while minimizing exposure to cannon fire, marking a shift from medieval towers to angled, geometric defenses.[32] Lunettes reached their peak integration during the 17th and 18th centuries, particularly in the star forts pioneered by French engineer Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, whose systematic approach to fortification emphasized layered outworks for both permanent defenses and field positions.[33] A notable example is the lunette at the Tongeren Gate during the 1673 Siege of Maastricht, a key Dutch defensive outwork assaulted by French forces under Vauban's direction; this structure exemplified the tactical use of lunettes in resisting sieges. Vauban's precepts, outlined in his treatise Traité des sièges et de l'attaque des places (c. 1704), influenced European military engineering across France's borders, with lunettes appearing in star fort complexes like those at Lille and Neuf-Brisach, where they served as advanced redans to protect bastion flanks.[34][33] During the Napoleonic Wars in the early 19th century and later in the mid-19th century, lunettes began to decline in relevance as advancements in artillery range and accuracy, including the introduction of rifled artillery and explosive shells by the 1850s, outpaced the protective capabilities of low-profile bastioned outworks, allowing attackers to breach earthworks from greater distances with higher accuracy.[35] Traditional trace italienne elements, including lunettes, proved vulnerable to these technological shifts, leading to a transition toward polygonal forts with thicker, dispersed defenses.[36] However, lunettes persisted in improvised earthwork forms during the American Civil War, with Confederate forces at the 1864 Petersburg Campaign constructing lunettes along the Dimmock Line and subsequent trench networks to anchor artillery positions against Union advances, representing some of the last significant applications before modern firepower rendered them obsolete.[37]Other Contexts
In Optics and Eyewear
In optics and eyewear, the term "lunette" derives from the French word for "little moon," reflecting its historical use for eyeglasses generally. In the 17th century, French "lunettes" described single-lens perspective glasses held to one eye for distance vision, popular among fashionable myopes and often suspended from a neck cord.[38] These devices served as precursors to more advanced eyewear, allowing users to correct for nearsightedness without full frames. The half-moon shape appeared prominently in the late 18th century with Benjamin Franklin's invention of bifocals in 1784, featuring a lower segment for reading fused to an upper distance lens to address presbyopia without switching glasses.[39] This design influenced lightweight reading glasses perched on the nose, enabling glances over the top for distance while focusing below. In contemporary applications, half-moon reading inserts appear in protective eyewear, such as bifocal safety glasses for industrial use, providing near vision in wraparound frames made of polycarbonate for impact resistance.[40]In Surveying and Engineering
In 19th-century land surveying, a lunette referred to the telescope or optical sight component integrated into theodolites, enabling precise measurement of horizontal and vertical angles for topographic mapping. This device, often produced by specialized makers such as the Société des Lunetiers in France, featured a reversible or transiting lunette with etched cross-hairs and stadia lines to facilitate accurate sighting over long distances, typically reading to one arc minute on a sexagesimal circle. The lunette's design allowed surveyors to align distant landmarks and calculate elevations, forming the basis for detailed contour maps essential to land division and infrastructure planning.[41][42] Some theodolites incorporated a sight vane adjacent to or integrated with the lunette, aiding in fine adjustments for angle readings by providing a reference for alignment against the instrument's bubble level. This configuration enhanced precision in rugged terrains and was particularly valued in repetitive angle measurements using clamp and tangent screws. Historical accounts of instrument evolution highlight the lunette's role in transitioning from simple sighting vanes to optical systems, as pioneered by earlier innovators like Jean Picard and refined through the 1800s.[43] In civil engineering, theodolites with lunettes were employed in large-scale projects, including the 1860s surveys for the U.S. transcontinental railroad, where they helped measure gradients and alignments across varied topography, such as the Sierra Nevada. Survey teams under the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers relied on these instruments to plot routes with high accuracy, informing the final path selected in 1866 and enabling the railroad's completion in 1869 over approximately 1,900 miles.[44][45]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lunette