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Margie Profet
Margie Profet
Margie Profet
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Margaret J. "Margie" Profet (born August 7, 1958) is an American evolutionary biologist with no formal biology training who created a decade-long controversy when she published her findings on the role of Darwinian evolution in menstruation,[1] allergies[2] and morning sickness.[3][4] She argued that these three processes had evolved to eliminate pathogens, carcinogens and other toxins from the body.

Key Information

Career

[edit]

A graduate of Harvard University, where she studied political philosophy with Harvey Mansfield and graduated in 1980, and University of California, Berkeley, where in 1985 she received a bachelor's degree in physics, Profet returned to school in 1994, studying mathematics at the University of Washington in Seattle, where she was awarded a "visiting scholar" position in the astronomy department, an allied discipline.[5] Several years later, she returned to Harvard, once again to study math.

When Profet won a MacArthur Fellowship in 1993,[6] international media took notice. New York Times reporter Natalie Angier called Profet's theory that menstruation protected some female mammal's reproductive canals a "radical new view".[7] Scientific American, Time, Omni, and even People Magazine all followed with in-depth profiles of the 35-year-old "maverick" scientific prodigy.[8][9][10][11]

Profet went on to publish two equally controversial bestselling books, 1995's Protecting Your Baby-To-Be: Preventing Birth Defects in the First Trimester and a 1997 follow up, Pregnancy Sickness: Using Your Body's Natural Defenses to Protect Your Baby-To-Be. Supporters—including U.C. Santa Barbara anthropologist Donald Symons and U.C. Berkeley toxicologist Bruce Ames—considered her work a pioneering analysis of evolutionary theory in a never-before-studied, everyday context. In 2000, Cornell University researchers Samuel Flaxman and Paul Sherman provided evidence supporting Profet's hypothesis that "morning sickness" is an evolved trait that protects the mother and her fetus against toxins ingested by the mother.[12]

In 2008, Paul Sherman and Janet Shellman-Sherman found that Profet's theory that allergies are evolved ways to expel toxins and carcinogens—the so-called "toxin" or "prophylaxis hypothesis"—may explain a mysterious observation dating back to 1953 and replicated many times since: People with allergies are at much lower risk for some types of cancers, especially malignancies of tissues that are directly exposed to the external environment, even including the brain tumor glioma.[13][14]

While research has for decades supported Profet's prophylaxis hypothesis applied to carcinogens, Stanford University Medical School and Yale University Medical School researchers in 2013 reported similar experimental support applying it to toxins, specifically bee venom.[15] Bee venom induces allergic reactions in some people that can include anaphylactic shock and death. Both studies were published in the journal Immunology.

Yale immunology researchers Noah W. Palm, Ruslan Medzhitov, et al. reported that Phospholipase A2—the major allergen in bee venom -- "is sensed by the innate immune system" and induces an immune response in mice that can protect against potentially fatal venom doses.[16]

Likewise, injecting mice with a small dose of bee venom conferred immunity to a much larger, fatal dose, Stanford researchers Stephen Galli, Thomas Marichal, and Philipp Starkl found. "Our findings support the hypothesis that this kind of venom-specific, IgE-associated, adaptive immune response developed, at least in evolutionary terms, to protect the host against potentially toxic amounts of venom, such as would happen if the animal encountered a whole nest of bees, or in the event of a snakebite," Galli explained.[17][18][19]

The 2011 play The How and the Why by Sarah Treem draws on Profet's work on menstruation.[20]

Disappearance and discovery

[edit]

Profet vanished from Cambridge, Massachusetts: according to friends and colleagues, in 2005; according to family members, before 2005. Her whereabouts were unknown for more than seven years until she was found in Boston, Massachusetts, after a long ordeal with poverty and illness. She was reunited with her family in Southern California on May 16, 2012, as a result of nationwide attention from a May 2012 Psychology Today article.[21][22][23]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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Margie Profet

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Margie Profet (born August 7, 1958) is an American evolutionary biologist whose unconventional background and innovative theories on the adaptive functions of human physiology earned her widespread recognition in the field of Darwinian medicine. Lacking formal training in biology, she proposed that phenomena such as , allergies, and serve protective roles against pathogens and toxins, challenging traditional views and sparking debate among scientists. In 1993, at the age of 35, Profet received a MacArthur Fellowship for her groundbreaking work, which bridged and health sciences. Profet grew up in , the daughter of two engineers, and demonstrated early academic promise, achieving test scores well above her age level. She earned a B.A. in from in 1980 and a second B.A. in physics from the , in 1985, before transitioning into biological research without pursuing a graduate degree in the field. Initially working as a waitress and later as an editor for toxicologist at UC Berkeley, she began developing her ideas on evolutionary adaptations in the late 1980s. By the early 1990s, she had published landmark papers in prestigious journals, including the Quarterly Review of Biology, arguing that allergies function as an immunological defense against environmental toxins like venoms and plant chemicals, flushes pathogens from the reproductive tract, and pregnancy sickness induces aversions to potentially harmful foods to safeguard the from teratogens. Her theories, while influential in popularizing Darwinian medicine—a field examining how evolutionary pressures shape disease and physiological responses—also generated controversy for their adaptationist approach and lack of empirical testing at the time. Profet served as a research associate at UC Berkeley and a in the Astronomy Department at the in , where she continued exploring these ideas. She authored books such as Protecting Your Baby-to-Be (1995) and Pregnancy Sickness (1997), aimed at applying her research to advice. Despite her rising prominence, including features in major media outlets, Profet withdrew from academic and social circles around 2002–2005, leading to her classification as a after her mother filed a report and hired a . In 2012, following the publication of a article detailing her disappearance, Profet contacted her family, revealing she had been living in seclusion under an assumed name due to severe, undisclosed physical pain and injuries, sustained in part by her religious faith and in conditions of . She expressed relief at reuniting with loved ones and hopes of resuming work, though she has remained largely out of the public eye since. Her story highlights both the challenges faced by independent researchers and the enduring impact of her provocative ideas on evolutionary explanations for human health.

Early life and education

Family background and childhood

Margie Profet was born on August 7, 1958, in . She grew up in a STEM-oriented household as the daughter of Bob and Karen Profet, both physicists who worked for California aerospace companies and held degrees from the . The family lived in suburban beachfront communities south of , where Profet and her three siblings were raised in an intellectually stimulating environment that emphasized scientific inquiry. From an early age, Profet displayed precocious curiosity, obsessively reading books and studying independently before school in first and second grade, often on the family home's heat register. By age seven, she felt bored with formal schooling and vowed to excel academically to maintain future options, while her father described her as "off the charts weird" and a "10 sigma" in eccentricity and intellect. This non-traditional learning path, influenced by family discussions on and , fostered her early fascination with "why" questions, consistently testing several grades above her age level. By sixth grade, she was tackling high school algebra, setting the stage for her pursuit of higher education.

Academic training

Margie Profet earned her first in from in 1980. Following this, she enrolled in physics at the , where she completed a second in 1985. After her time at Berkeley, Profet engaged in , taking odd jobs to support herself while devoting significant time to reading extensively on biology and evolutionary theory, areas in which she had no formal training. In 1990, she briefly returned to Harvard as a graduate student in but did not complete the degree. In 1993, she became affiliated with the as a in the Department of Astronomy, a position that provided interdisciplinary access to mathematical and scientific resources. By the early 2000s, she had returned to to take advanced classes, further building on her quantitative foundation. Profet's academic path was notably unconventional, characterized by interdisciplinary shifts and self-directed learning rather than traditional graduate degrees in . Her physics and background later shaped her approach to evolutionary problems, enabling novel applications of quantitative modeling to biological phenomena.

Evolutionary biology research

Hypothesis on menstruation

In her 1993 paper, Margie Profet proposed that functions as an adaptive defense mechanism to protect the female reproductive tract from pathogens transported by during . She argued that from the male and female genitalia adhere to tails and are carried into the and oviducts, where they can colonize and cause leading to or systemic illness. To counter this threat, sheds the uterine lining, applies mechanical pressure through menstrual blood flow to dislodge pathogens, and delivers immune cells directly to the site of potential , thereby preventing pathogen establishment. This hypothesis positions not as a wasteful byproduct but as a targeted evolutionary response, particularly beneficial in species where the probability of conception per cycle is low, necessitating frequent exposures to sperm-borne risks. Profet's evolutionary rationale emphasized the adaptive value of by comparing it across mammals, noting that overt or covert forms occur in a wide range of species, including (such as monkeys, apes, , and prosimians) and non-primates like bats and insectivores. She challenged prevailing non-adaptive theories, which viewed as an incidental cost of preparing the for —such as the energy expenditure and iron loss involved—by highlighting specialized anatomical features like spiral arteries that facilitate rapid tissue shedding and hemorrhage specifically when implantation fails. According to Profet, these traits would not have evolved if served no independent purpose beyond preparation; instead, they represent an investment in defense against the heightened exposure from repeated matings in species like humans, who exhibit year-round sexual receptivity and thus more frequent inseminations than most mammals. Her model predicts that the degree of menstrual bleeding correlates inversely with per-cycle probability and positively with body size and environmental load, explaining variations observed across species. Supporting evidence from Profet's analysis included observations that human uteri infected with pathogens exhibit more profuse , suggesting an intensified antipathogen response, and that reduces rates by clearing potential sites before they become chronic. She further linked this mechanism to a decreased of uterine cancers, such as endometrial , which can arise from persistent or , positing that regular shedding minimizes the accumulation of oncogenic agents introduced via . These insights were detailed in her seminal publication, " as a Defense Against Pathogens Transported by ," which appeared in The Quarterly Review of Biology (Volume 68, Issue 3, pages 335–386). The hypothesis ignited initial scientific debate by upending the dominant view of menstruation as a mere consequence of endometrial buildup for implantation, with Profet asserting that such a perspective overlooked its proactive in reproductive . Critics questioned the universality of across mammals and the precise of , but Profet's framework prompted reevaluation of 's costs—such as the metabolic burden on females—as justified by its protective benefits against sexually transmitted threats. As she stated, " is a costly event to the female, and it wouldn't be there if it didn't serve a very important purpose."

Theory of pregnancy sickness

Margie Profet hypothesized that pregnancy sickness— and primarily in the first trimester—evolved as a protective to shield the developing from teratogenic toxins ingested through food. This mechanism, she argued, prompts women to avoid substances like alkaloids in wild and pathogens or contaminants in meats, which posed significant risks during early when diets relied heavily on and . By inducing aversions and expulsion, pregnancy sickness minimizes exposure during the critical period of , when the is most vulnerable to developmental defects. Profet supported her theory with evolutionary evidence linking the condition's prevalence—up to 80% of pregnancies—to ancestral human diets abundant in potential embryotoxins, such as bitter-tasting and raw animal products common in the Pleistocene era. She noted that the timing of symptoms, peaking between weeks 6 and 18 of , aligns precisely with the embryo's heightened sensitivity to toxins, suggesting a targeted adaptive response rather than a random occurrence. patterns of food aversions during , often toward meats, eggs, and strong-flavored , further corroborate this, as these items historically carried higher risks of contamination or toxicity. Challenging prevailing medical views that dismiss pregnancy sickness as a mere byproduct of hormonal fluctuations like elevated , Profet contended it confers a direct survival advantage, evidenced by studies showing women with and experience a 50-75% lower risk of compared to those without symptoms. This protective effect underscores the condition's functional role in enhancing , rather than viewing it as an incidental discomfort. Recent research as of 2025 continues to support this adaptive view, with studies linking pregnancy sickness to reduced fetal exposure to toxins and lower rates. Profet first outlined her ideas in a 1988 paper and elaborated them in a 1992 chapter in The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture, where she integrated toxin-avoidance data from and . She further popularized the hypothesis in her 1997 book Pregnancy Sickness: Using Your Body's Natural Defenses to Protect Your Baby-to-Be, drawing on these sources to emphasize its Darwinian roots. In practical terms, Profet's theory implies that pregnant women should trust their aversions to certain foods as evolved signals of danger, potentially guiding safer dietary choices to support embryonic health without unnecessary interventions. This perspective aligns with her overarching application of Darwinian medicine to reinterpret physiological traits as beneficial adaptations.

Function of allergies

Margie Profet proposed that allergies function as an adaptive immune defense mechanism against environmental s and macroscopic parasites, rather than as pathological malfunctions. In her theory, allergic reactions—such as , increased production, sneezing, coughing, , and —serve to expel or neutralize harmful substances like secondary plant compounds, venoms, and parasite-associated s that might otherwise cause , , or . These responses are mediated by (IgE) antibodies and mast cells, which target low-molecular-weight s that bind to serum proteins, toxin carriers, and high-molecular-weight toxic proteins, while a associated drop in further slows dissemination through the body. The evolutionary basis of this "toxin hypothesis" posits that the allergic response, part of the broader Th2 immune pathway, arose as a "last line of defense" in ancestral environments rich in potential toxins and parasites, where such rapid, exaggerated reactions provided a advantage by preventing or of dangerous agents. Profet argued that this mechanism is an example of a "too much of a good thing" : highly beneficial against genuine threats but prone to overreaction in contemporary settings with reduced exposure to natural toxins and parasites due to improved , processed foods, and urbanization. This shift explains the maladaptive nature of allergies today, where harmless substances mimicking toxins (e.g., or certain foods) trigger unnecessary responses. Supporting evidence for Profet's includes cross-species observations of similar IgE-mediated defenses in mammals exposed to venoms and parasites, such as resistance mechanisms in animals like honey badgers against snake , and human epidemiological patterns showing higher prevalence in industrialized societies compared to populations, correlating with declines in parasite exposure and natural encounters. For instance, studies indicate that allergic individuals may have lower risks of certain -related cancers, suggesting a protective role. Recent research as of 2023 has tested and supported the hypothesis, showing IgE and mast cells play roles in defense against venoms and promoting avoidance behaviors. Profet detailed this framework in her seminal 1991 paper, "The Function of Allergy: Immunological Defense Against ," published in The Quarterly Review of Biology. Broader implications of Profet's work challenge early precursors to the by emphasizing as signals of vigilant immune surveillance against specific environmental dangers, rather than mere byproducts of microbial deprivation, and advocate for reevaluating and treatment to focus on avoidance rather than suppression alone. This perspective highlights how evolutionary mismatches contribute to modern disease burdens, influencing subsequent research on Th2 immunity's dual role in protection and pathology.

Career and publications

Professional affiliations

After completing her undergraduate degrees, Margie Profet pursued her research in as an independent scholar, without securing traditional academic appointments in the field due to her non-traditional educational background lacking formal training in biology. She held brief positions at the , where she collaborated with toxicologist on related scientific editing and contributions. Later, she served as a in the Astronomy Department at the in and was affiliated with its Department of Molecular Biotechnology, periods that coincided with her relocation to the following her 1993 MacArthur Fellowship. Profet also briefly enrolled as a graduate student in at in 1990 and took courses there in the early 2000s, though these were informal engagements rather than formal academic roles. Throughout her active research period from the late 1980s to the early 2000s, Profet was primarily based in the area, where she maintained connections with prominent evolutionary biologists such as Donald Symons and George C. Williams, who provided intellectual support for her work. Her independent status exposed her to significant challenges within academia, including resistance stemming from her absence of a PhD in , which limited access to institutional resources and funding; she sustained her efforts through self-funding and odd jobs such as waitressing. By the mid-1990s, Profet began transitioning toward public outreach, leveraging her fellowship to disseminate ideas beyond academic circles while continuing her self-directed research.

Major publications

Margie Profet's major publications consist of seminal peer-reviewed articles and two popular books that applied her evolutionary theories to practical advice on reproductive health. Despite lacking a formal PhD and operating as an independent researcher, she targeted high-impact academic journals. These works played a key role in introducing her adaptationist perspectives to both scholarly and public audiences. Her foundational papers include "The Evolution of Pregnancy Sickness as Protection to the against Pleistocene Teratogens," published in Evolutionary Theory in 1988, which introduced her theory on the adaptive value of during . This was followed by "The Function of : Immunological Defense Against Toxins," published in the Quarterly Review of Biology in 1991, which proposed an evolutionary role for allergic responses. In 1992, she contributed " Sickness as : A Deterrent to Maternal Ingestion of Teratogens" to the edited volume The Adapted Mind: and the Generation of Culture, outlining the adaptive value of during early . This was followed by " as a Defense Against Pathogens Transported by " in the Quarterly Review of Biology in 1993, arguing for menstruation's protective function in female . Profet extended her ideas into accessible formats with Protecting Your Baby-To-Be: Preventing Birth Defects in the First Trimester, published by in 1995, which offered evidence-based guidance for expectant mothers based on her toxin-avoidance theories. Her second book, Pregnancy Sickness: Using Your Body's Natural Defenses to Protect Your Baby-To-Be, released by in 1997, further elaborated on the benefits of pregnancy-related and provided strategies to support it during .

Recognition and legacy

Awards and honors

In 1993, Margie Profet received the MacArthur Fellowship, commonly known as the "Genius Grant," recognizing her groundbreaking contributions to by integrating it with health sciences to explain physiological adaptations such as pregnancy sickness, allergies, and . This prestigious award, administered by the John D. and Foundation, selected Profet as one of 31 fellows that year from nominations by an anonymous group of experts, highlighting her potential for continued exceptional . The fellowship provided Profet with a five-year, unrestricted grant—amounting to approximately $215,000 in 1993 dollars—along with health benefits, allowing her to conduct independent research free from academic or institutional obligations. This financial and professional freedom validated her unconventional path as an independent scholar, coming shortly after her seminal publications in journals like the Quarterly Review of Biology and Proceedings of the . Profet utilized the support to explore new research directions, transitioning from toward broader evolutionary explanations of human health defenses. Beyond the MacArthur, Profet's innovations earned her recognition as a leading theorist in Darwinian , with her theories on immunological defenses against toxins widely cited in foundational works on the field's origins and development. Her ideas influenced subsequent studies linking evolutionary adaptations to modern health phenomena, solidifying her impact despite her non-traditional career trajectory.

Critical reception and influence

Margie Profet's theories received endorsements from prominent figures in and . Evolutionary Donald Symons praised her "amazingly creative intellect," highlighting the innovative nature of her adaptive explanations for physiological phenomena. Similarly, UC Berkeley Bruce , who hired her as an editor and collaborated on research, viewed her work as a pioneering application of evolutionary theory to everyday health contexts. Empirical studies provided support for several of Profet's hypotheses. For pregnancy sickness, Samuel M. Flaxman and Paul W. Sherman of analyzed ethnographic data across 27 cultures, finding that and in early correlate with avoidance of potentially teratogenic foods like meats and certain plants, aligning with Profet's toxin-avoidance model and reducing risk. On allergies, 2013 experiments by Stephen J. Galli's group at and Ruslan Medzhitov's at demonstrated that allergy-like immune responses, including IgE-mediated activation, enhance survival in mice exposed to toxins such as components, validating the idea of allergies as an evolved defense mechanism.00003-2) Profet's ideas also faced significant controversies, particularly due to her lack of formal training in , which led to and a "stir" in the . Reproductive Beverly Strassmann rebutted her menstruation hypothesis in 1996, arguing it lacked and logical evolutionary grounding, a critique widely seen as a debunking. Initial reactions to her adaptive claims, such as allergies protecting against carcinogens, were dismissed by immunologists as speculative, partly because of her outsider status. Despite debates, Profet's work influenced the emergence of Darwinian medicine by integrating evolutionary theory with health sciences, serving as an early example of analyzing "dysfunctions" like allergies and as adaptive traits. Her theories inspired the 2011 play The How and the Why by , which dramatizes a fictionalized version of her menstruation hypothesis to explore scientific perseverance. Profet's ideas garnered citations in , notably her 1992 chapter in The Adapted Mind, which applied her pregnancy sickness model to broader behavioral adaptations. Over time, Profet's contributions shifted perspectives on physiological "disorders," portraying allergies not merely as maladaptations but as potentially beneficial defenses against toxins and carcinogens, influencing subsequent research on immune evolution. Her disappearance in curtailed further direct contributions, but her legacy endures in ongoing Darwinian medical inquiries.

Disappearance and later life

Events of disappearance

Margie Profet, then in her mid-40s, last had documented contact with her mother, Karen Profet, in May 2002, after which she ceased communication with family members. Between 2002 and 2005, she gradually withdrew from colleagues and friends in the area, with final sightings reported in 2004 or early 2005. In one of her last known professional interactions, Profet arranged to meet a Harvard researcher in 2004 but failed to appear, marking the point at which she vanished without further trace. Unmarried and living independently, she left no electronic records, abandoned her apartment, and had no reported history of issues, illness, or dangerous associations at the time. Her family, particularly her mother, responded promptly by filing a missing persons report with the Police Department and providing updated dental records to aid the search. Karen Profet also personally searched local streets and homeless shelters, and hired a private to investigate, but no leads emerged. Friends and acquaintances, including Harvard professor , who last encountered her on a street in 2004 or 2005 where she abruptly told him to "get lost," expressed concern over her distressed state in prior interactions but could offer no explanation for her sudden absence. No evidence of foul play was found, though her mother considered it a remote possibility compared to a voluntary withdrawal. At the time, those close to Profet speculated on various explanations for her disappearance, including , mental instability, or a deliberate choice to live off-grid and privately, potentially under a new identity, though none were substantiated by evidence. Her independent lifestyle, characterized by minimal reliance on others and a focus on solitary intellectual pursuits, culminated in this complete severance from her professional and social networks in the area. The lack of any or sightings persisted for years, leaving her case as an unresolved mystery among circles until later developments.

Rediscovery and current status

In May 2012, Margie Profet became aware of reports concerning her own "missing" status through media coverage, including a prominent article, which prompted her to reach out to her family. She was located living in and contending with illness in , ; investigations confirmed her disappearance had been voluntary, with no evidence of criminal involvement. Following the reunion on May 16, 2012, in , her family provided support during her recovery, expressing profound relief while emphasizing the need to respect her privacy; Profet has shared no further public details and has not resumed her research career. As of 2025, Profet, born , 1958, and now aged 67, continues to maintain a low-profile life, with no new publications or public appearances documented.

References

  1. https://www.macfound.org/fellows/class-of-1993/margie-profet
  2. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/201205/the-mysterious-case-the-vanishing-genius
  3. https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/19940731/1922927/darwinian-medicine----its-a-war-out-there-and-margie-profet-a-leading-theorist-in-a-new-science-thinks-the-human-body-does-some-pretty-weird-things-to-survive
  4. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369848602000213
  5. https://www.mamamia.com.au/missing-people-stories/
  6. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383345202_Margie_Profet
  7. https://www.chronicle.com/article/maverick-scholar-offers-new-pregnancy-menu/
  8. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/418170
  9. https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/21/science/radical-new-view-of-role-of-menstruation.html
  10. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1992-98504-008
  11. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8373648/
  12. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/newsroom/releases/92616_nauseapregnancy
  13. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/09/250929054923.htm
  14. https://academic.oup.com/emph/article/13/1/307/8257518
  15. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2052671/
  16. https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(15)00003-2
  17. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/417049
  18. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7673288/
  19. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06188-0
  20. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8210311/
  21. https://books.google.com/books/about/Protecting_Your_Baby_to_be.html?id=671aAAAAYAAJ
  22. https://www.macfound.org/programs/awards/fellows/results?fellow_class=1993
  23. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1993/06/15/day-of-big-bucks-from-the-sky/969a39bb-9323-4466-857f-9793dced7b32/
  24. https://www.the-scientist.com/as-macarthur-fellowship-turns-15-recipients-reflect-on-its-impact-57897
  25. https://philarchive.org/archive/ZAMOAH-2
  26. https://nescent.org/science/awards_summary.php-id=300.html
  27. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10858967/
  28. https://timelinetheatre.com/app/uploads/TimeLine_HowAndWhy_Backstory.pdf
  29. https://scroll.in/article/719651/why-do-we-have-allergies-a-yale-immunologist-searches-for-answers
  30. https://www.broadwayworld.com/off-broadway/article/Sarah-Treems-THE-HOW-AND-THE-WHY-Receives-NYC-Premiere-Directed-By-Austin-Pendleton-20220907
  31. https://iep.utm.edu/evol-psy/
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