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Mimids
Long-billed thrasher
Toxostoma longirostre
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Superfamily: Muscicapoidea
Family: Mimidae
Bonaparte, 1853
Genera

Allenia
Cinclocerthia
Dumetella
Margarops
Melanoptila
Melanotis
Mimus
Oreoscoptes
Ramphocinclus
Toxostoma

The mimids are the New World family of passerine birds, Mimidae, that includes thrashers, mockingbirds, tremblers, and the New World catbirds. As their name (Latin for "mimic") suggests, these birds are notable for their vocalization, especially some species' remarkable ability to mimic a wide variety of birds and other sounds heard outdoors. They are commonly referred to as mimic thrushes but are not, in fact, thrushes (which are members of family Turdidae).[1]

Description

[edit]

There are over 30 species of mimids in two larger and some ten small or monotypic genera. They tend toward dull grays and browns in their appearance, though a few are black or blue-gray, and many have red, yellow, or white irises. They range from 20 to 33 centimetres in length, and 36 to 56 grams in weight.[2] Many mimids have a rather thrush-like pattern: brown above, pale with dark streaks or spots below. They tend to have longer tails than thrushes (or the bigger wrens, which they also resemble) and longer bills that in many species curve downward.[3]

They have long, strong legs (for passerines) with which many species hop through undergrowth searching for arthropods and fruits to eat. Their habitat varies from forest undergrowth to scrub, high-altitude grasslands, and deserts. The two tremblers live in the atypical habitat of rainforests in the Lesser Antilles, and the brown trembler has the particularly atypical behavior of foraging while clinging to tree trunks.[3]

All known species build somewhat messy, bulky twig nests in dense growth, which are in most species on the ground or no more than 2 meters up. They usually lay 2 to 5 eggs that hatch in 12 or 13 days, which is also the length of time the chicks stay in the nest. Breeding usually starts in the spring or early in the rainy season, and many species can have two or even three broods per year. Most failures to fledge young are due to predation. Pairs often stay together for more than one breeding season.[3]

In the history of science

[edit]

Contrary to often-held belief, the Nesomimus mockingbirds may have played at least as great a role as Darwin's finches in inspiring Darwin's work on his theory of evolution.[4]

Systematics

[edit]

Outside the family

[edit]

Phylogenetic analyses have shown that mimids are most closely related to starlings.[5][6] These and oxpeckers (and the Philippine creepers if they are not outright but highly apomorphic starlings) form a group of Muscicapoidea which originated probably in the Early Miocene – very roughly 25–20 mya[7] – somewhere in East Asia.[6] This is evidenced by the Asian-SW Pacific distribution of the most basal starlings (and Philippine creepers) and the North American range of the basal mimids.

They are sometimes united with the starlings in the Sturnidae as a tribe Mimini as proposed by Sibley & Monroe (1990).[5] This makes the expanded Sturnidae a rather noninformative group and is probably due to the methodological drawbacks of their DNA-DNA hybridization technique.

The following cladogram shows the relationships between the families in the superfamily Muscicapoidea. It is based on a large molecular phylogenetic study of the passerines by Carl Oliveros and coworkers that was published in 2019.[8]

Muscicapoidea

Elachuridae – spotted elachura

Cinclidae – dippers (5 species)

Turdidae – thrushes (193 species)

Muscicapidae – chats, Old World flycatchers (357 species)

Buphagidae – oxpeckers (2 species)

Mimidae – mockingbirds, thrashers (35 species)

Sturnidae – starlings, rhabdornis (126 species)

Within the family

[edit]

The mockingbirds with some thrashers seem to form one major clade, while the two other groups and the remaining thrashers seem to form another, but the basal branching pattern is not well resolved. The tremblers, again, are a monophyletic lineage. The latter, however, are embedded in a paraphyletic catbird-Caribbean thrasher assemblage which consists of many rather basal lineages.[9][10]

For detailed information on the evolutionary relationships of the different mimid lineages, see their articles.

Mockingbirds:

  • Genus Mimus – typical mockingbirds (some 10 species, includes Mimodes)
  • The former genus Nesomimus, now part of Mimus[11] – mockingbirds of the Galápagos Islands (4 species)
  • Genus Melanotis – blue mockingbirds (2 species)

New World catbirds:

Thrashers:

Tremblers

The following genus-level cladogram is based on a molecular phylogenetic study by Irby Lovette and collaborators that was published in 2012.[12]

Mimidae

Toxostoma – thrashers (10 species)

Oreoscoptes – sage thrasher

Mimus – mockingbirds (14 species)

Melanotis – mockingbirds (2 species)

Melanoptila – black catbird

Ramphocinclus – thrashers (2 species)

Dumetella – gray catbird

Allenia – scaly-breasted thrasher

Margarops – pearly-eyed thrasher

Cinclocerthia – tremblers (2 species)

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mimid

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The mimids, comprising the family Mimidae, are a group of New World passerine birds renowned for their exceptional vocal mimicry, which includes imitating the songs of other birds, frogs, and even mechanical sounds such as cell phone alerts. This family encompasses 35 species across 10 genera, including well-known groups like mockingbirds (genus Mimus, 14 species), thrashers (genus Toxostoma, 11 species), tremblers (genus Cinclocerthia, 2 species), and the gray catbird (genus Dumetella). Originating approximately 25 million years ago in North America, mimids are most closely related to Old World starlings in the family Sturnidae. These medium-sized birds, typically measuring 20–33 cm in length and weighing 36–56 g, feature distinctive physical traits such as long tails, slender curved bills adapted for foraging, strong legs for hopping through undergrowth, and in dull grays, browns, or black with accents like white wing patches or markings. They inhabit diverse open environments across the , from southern to southern , with the greatest species diversity in southern , , and the islands; preferred habitats include scrublands, woodlands, grasslands, deserts, and even suburban areas, while tremblers favor rainforests in the . Mimids are primarily insectivorous and frugivorous, foraging on the ground or in low vegetation for arthropods, fruits, and , with some species probing or flipping litter to uncover . Their vocal prowess is a defining characteristic, producing complex, versatile songs that serve in territory defense and mate attraction, often delivered from prominent perches. involves monogamous pairs building cup-shaped nests in bushes or trees, laying clutches of 3–5 eggs that incubate for 11–14 days, with fledglings leaving the nest after about two weeks. While most species are of least concern conservation-wise, such as the adaptable , threats like habitat loss and predation by domestic cats impact some populations, though others like the pearly-eyed thrasher have shown resilience in places like .

Taxonomy and Systematics

Phylogenetic Position

The family Mimidae comprises oscine passerines in the order Passeriformes, placed within the infraorder Passerides and superfamily Muscicapoidea. This positioning reflects their membership in the broader clade of songbirds characterized by advanced vocal capabilities, distinct from suboscine passerines in the suborder . Molecular phylogenies, derived from analyses of (mtDNA) and nuclear genes, indicate that Mimidae forms a well-supported sister to Sturnidae (starlings) within Muscicapoidea, with Turdidae (thrushes) as a close outgroup. These relationships are corroborated by comprehensive studies employing concatenated sequence data, revealing a shared ancestry that diverged approximately 23–28 million years ago during the late to early . Phylogenetic trees and cladograms from such analyses depict Mimidae branching from this common ancestor with Sturnidae, underscoring in vocal traits between New World mimids and Old World starlings. Genetic markers, including variations in the gene associated with vocal learning circuits in the , further illuminate Mimidae's evolutionary adaptations for complex song production, a trait prominent among oscine families but notably expressed in mimids' mimetic behaviors.

Internal Classification

The family Mimidae is traditionally divided into two subfamilies: Miminae, comprising and catbirds, and Toxostomatinae, encompassing thrashers and tremblers. This classification reflects distinct morphological and behavioral traits, with Miminae species often noted for superior vocal and Toxostomatinae for ground-foraging adaptations. Mimidae includes approximately 35 species across 10 genera, with diversity concentrated in the Americas and significant endemism in the Caribbean. Key genera in Miminae include Mimus (mockingbirds; 14 species, e.g., the Northern Mockingbird Mimus polyglottos, widespread in North America) and Dumetella (1 species, the Gray Catbird Dumetella carolinensis, found across eastern North America and the Caribbean). In Toxostomatinae, prominent genera are Toxostoma (thrashers; 10 species, e.g., the Curve-billed Thrasher Toxostoma curvirostre, ranging from the southwestern U.S. to Central America) and Margarops (1 species, the Pearly-eyed Thrasher Margarops fuscatus, found across the Caribbean). Other genera, such as Ramphocinclus (2 species of thrashers endemic to Martinique and St. Lucia), Allenia (1 species, the Scaly-breasted Thrasher Allenia fusca, endemic to the Lesser Antilles), and Cinclocerthia (2 species of tremblers restricted to the Lesser Antilles), highlight the family's island radiations. Molecular phylogenetics in the 2010s has prompted revisions to the internal classification, clarifying relationships and leading to taxonomic changes like the synonymy of some thrashers and the elevation of island endemics. For instance, a multilocus study resolved Oreoscoptes (Sage Thrasher) as more closely allied to than typical thrashers, influencing generic boundaries, while analyses of Antillean taxa supported splits within Ramphocinclus and Cinclocerthia based on , including the resurrection of Allenia for the Scaly-breasted Thrasher. These updates underscore the role of vicariance and in shaping Mimidae diversity, particularly among endemics comprising over a quarter of the family's .

Morphology and Description

Physical Characteristics

Mimids are medium-sized birds, with lengths typically ranging from 20 to 33 cm and weights from approximately 23 to 93 g across species. They possess slender, decurved bills adapted for insectivory, which are generally longer and more probing in thrashers compared to the straighter bills of and catbirds. Their body structure supports a primarily ground-foraging lifestyle, featuring long tails that aid in balance while hopping or probing in undergrowth, strong legs for terrestrial movement, and short, rounded wings suited to brief, undulating flights rather than sustained aerial travel. is minimal, with males often slightly larger than females in body size but no pronounced differences in coloration. Juveniles typically exhibit spotted or mottled that provides , differing from the more uniform adult feathering. Variations in morphology occur across genera: mockingbirds (genus Mimus) display sleek, uniformly gray plumage for open habitats, while thrashers (genera Toxostoma and others) have more streaked, cryptic brown patterns suited to dense vegetation, and catbirds (Dumetella) show slaty-gray tones with a distinctive black cap. These adaptations reflect their diverse ecological niches within the New World.

Plumage and Vocal Adaptations

Mimids typically display in shades of gray to brown, often featuring conspicuous white patches on the wings that become prominent during flight displays. For instance, the (Mimus polyglottos) exhibits gray upperparts, whitish underparts, and bold white wing bars that aid in visual signaling. Similarly, the White-banded Mockingbird (Mimus triurus) has large white wing patches contrasting with its grayish crown and whitish underbody. In thrashers, such as the (Toxostoma rufum), the is more cryptic, with reddish-brown upperparts and heavy dark streaking on the whitish underparts that blends with leaf litter for concealment during ground foraging. Mockingbirds, by contrast, often show bolder patterns, like the unstreaked flanks and pale that enhance visibility in open habitats. Sexual dichromatism is uncommon in Mimidae, with males and females generally sharing similar coloration and patterns. The Blue Mockingbird (Melanotis caerulescens) stands out with its uniform blue-gray across the body, lacking pronounced differences between sexes. Unique features include the Gray Catbird's (Dumetella carolinensis) distinctive black cap atop its otherwise somber gray body, which contrasts with the undertail coverts. Tremblers, such as the Brown Trembler (Cinclocerthia ruficauda), possess plain chocolate-brown that provides effective in dense forest undergrowth. Seasonal changes are minimal across the family, as most species lack alternate plumages; instead, annual molts maintain feather integrity and reinforce cryptic patterns, such as the streaking in thrashers that aids concealment year-round. Vocal adaptations in mimids center on specialized anatomical structures that support their renowned and complex song repertoires. The , the avian vocal organ located at the trachea's bifurcation, is highly developed in this family, allowing precise control over sound production through bilateral . In the , for example, a single side of the syrinx can generate two independent voices simultaneously, enabling the imitation of diverse sounds from other species. Tracheal structures further enhance , contributing to the wide frequency range and complexity of mimid vocalizations. Neurologically, brain regions like the high vocal center (HVC), part of the song system in oscine passerines, are relatively enlarged in species with advanced vocal learning, including mimids, to facilitate song memory and improvisation. These adaptations collectively underpin the family's ecological success in diverse habitats through versatile acoustic signaling.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The Mimidae family is native exclusively to the , with a distribution spanning the from southern southward to southern . The (Mimus polyglottos), for instance, breeds across much of , including southern , the , , and the . Species diversity is highest in and , where over 20 species occur, reflecting the family's radiation in these regions. Introduced populations exist outside the native range, notably the in , where it was established in the early 20th century. Island endemics include the (Mimus graysoni), restricted to in Mexico's . Biogeographic patterns show continental species like mockingbirds distributed widely across open habitats, while many thrashers exhibit regional , such as the (Toxostoma curvirostre) in the of and northwestern . Current distributions in reflect historical range expansions following post-glacial recolonization. No Mimidae species are native to the .

Habitat Preferences

Mimids primarily occupy semi-open environments such as woodlands, scrublands, edges, and thornbrush, where they can access both foraging grounds and protective cover. Many species demonstrate remarkable adaptability to anthropogenic landscapes, including suburban neighborhoods, farmlands, and roadsides, which provide suitable perches and nesting sites amid scattered vegetation. For instance, the thrives in urban and suburban settings across its range, often perching conspicuously on fences, wires, or low trees to sing and defend territories. Thrashers, in contrast, frequently inhabit arid and semi-arid regions, with the favoring desert washes, cholla cactus stands, and thorn scrub in the and , where sparse but structurally diverse vegetation supports their ground-based foraging. Catbirds and tremblers exhibit preferences for denser understory layers; the forages in low, tangled shrubs and vine thickets along woodland borders or stream edges, while the Brown Trembler navigates the humid undergrowth of montane evergreen forests, fluttering through dense foliage in family groups. Altitudinally, mimids range from to elevations exceeding 3,000 m, particularly in the Andean cordilleras, where species like the Brown-backed Mockingbird occupy dry, shrubby valleys between 2,500 and 3,500 m. This broad elevational tolerance allows the family to exploit varied climatic zones, from coastal lowlands to highland grasslands. Microhabitat requirements emphasize elevated perches for vocal displays and dense shrubbery or thickets for nesting and concealment; for example, the selects overgrown edges of forests and hedgerows, favoring drier sites while avoiding extensive wetlands.

Behavior and Ecology

Vocalization and Mimicry

Males in the Mimidae family produce complex songs year-round, often featuring repertoires exceeding 100 distinct phrases that incorporate extensive vocal of other birds, amphibians, and even mechanical sounds such as car alarms. For instance, the (Mimus polyglottos) can imitate the calls of frogs and toads whose frequencies align with its own vocal range (750–7000 Hz), as well as non-avian sounds like ringing phones or squeaky wheels. These repertoires typically grow with age, with some individuals reaching over 150 types. The primary functions of these vocalizations include territory defense and mate attraction, with song continuing post-pairing to maintain pair bonds and territorial boundaries. In certain species, such as the (Dumetella carolinensis), pairs engage in duetting, where the female contributes chattering notes alongside the male's song to reinforce territorial claims. Acoustic analyses reveal geographic variation in songs, with dialects differing across populations due to adult song plasticity that allows individuals to adapt and incorporate local acoustic cues. Females also vocalize, producing songs that serve similar communicative roles but with reduced complexity and mimicry diversity compared to males; for example, female Northern Mockingbirds mimic fewer types (average 8.7 per individual) and incorporate mimetic elements in only about 25.6% of their songs. A distinctive trait of mimids is their reliance on learned vocalizations acquired from environmental sources throughout life via open-ended learning, in contrast to the predominantly innate songs of many other oscine passerines. This learning process enables the development of large, diverse repertoires and precise , often facilitated by the family's specialized anatomy.

Diet and Foraging

Mimids exhibit an omnivorous diet, consisting primarily of arthropods such as insects (including beetles, caterpillars, ants, and grasshoppers), along with fruits, seeds, and occasionally earthworms or small vertebrates like lizards. Annual dietary composition varies by species and season, with insects comprising roughly 50-65% overall but up to 80% or more during the breeding season to support high-energy demands, shifting to a greater reliance on fruits and seeds (often 50% or more) in fall and winter when invertebrate availability declines. Foraging strategies among mimids are opportunistic and adapted to their habitats, emphasizing ground-level activity but incorporating aerial and foliage-based techniques. Thrashers in the genus Toxostoma, such as the , primarily forage on the ground by scratching and sweeping leaf litter side-to-side with their long bills to uncover hidden prey, a behavior reflected in their common name. Catbirds (Dumetella carolinensis) split their efforts between ground probing (about 50% of foraging time) and from foliage and branches (around 42%), often flipping leaves or hopping through dense shrubs. (Mimus spp.), like the , walk, run, or hop along the ground to capture most arthropods, while also from branches, occasionally hovering briefly to pluck items from vegetation, or making short flycatching sallies for flying . Fruits are typically taken directly from plants or the ground by hopping along vines or branches. Mimids are active foragers throughout the day, with heightened activity at dawn and dusk during crepuscular periods, and they vigorously defend territories that include prime food patches year-round to secure resources. During the breeding season, adults provision juveniles predominantly with high-protein to promote rapid growth, delivering items via regurgitation or direct feeding. Morphological adaptations, such as elongated, slightly curved bills, enable effective probing into , litter, and crevices; for instance, the thrasher (Toxostoma redivivum) specializes in extracting and other ground-dwelling arthropods using this tool.

Reproduction and Breeding

Mimids typically form monogamous pairs for breeding, though has been observed rarely in some mockingbird species such as the (Mimus polyglottos). Breeding is seasonal in northern populations, occurring primarily in spring and summer from to , while tropical species may breed year-round or during extended wet seasons, allowing for multiple nesting attempts. Clutch sizes generally range from 2 to 5 eggs, with modal sizes of 3 or 4 across temperate-zone species; incubation lasts 12-14 days and is performed solely by the female. Nests are typically bulky, open cup structures constructed of twigs, grasses, and rootlets, placed in shrubs or trees 1-10 meters above ground. Gray catbirds (Dumetella carolinensis) often incorporate mud to bind nest materials, creating a more cohesive structure low in dense vegetation. Certain thrasher species, such as the Brown Thrasher (Toxostoma rufum), occasionally build ground-level nests in thick cover for concealment. Both parents provide care, with biparental feeding of nestlings; however, males contribute less to provisioning than females, who handle most brooding of young chicks. Young fledge after 10-18 days, depending on species, and pairs often raise 2-3 broods per season in temperate regions, with up to four possible in favorable conditions. Breeding success in mimids is influenced by high nest predation rates, which cause 50-70% of failures in studied temperate species, though complex in male songs enhances mate attraction and may signal territory quality to improve outcomes. Vocal displays, incorporating mimicked songs, play a key role in pair formation.

Evolutionary and Historical Aspects

Fossil Record and Evolution

The fossil record of the Mimidae family is sparse, with few definitive remains identified due to the fragile nature of passerine bones and limited preservation in suitable deposits. The oldest confirmed fossils attributed to Mimidae date to the Pleistocene, including specimens of Allenia fusca (Scaly-breasted Thrasher) from Grotte Cadet 2 (dated 11.5–14.4 ka BCE), Cinclocerthia ruficauda (Brown Trembler) from Grotte Blanchard (27.9 ka BCE), and Dumetella carolinensis (Gray Catbird) from Abri Cadet 3 (3 ka BCE–1 ka CE). These fossils indicate that several modern mimid species were already present in the Caribbean during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene, with morphological analyses of carpometacarpus bones, particularly in Cinclocerthia ruficauda, revealing greater past variability (e.g., A2-E2 character states absent in modern samples) that may reflect extinct populations or subpopulations lost following human arrival in the Holocene. Molecular phylogenetic studies provide the primary evidence for the evolutionary history of Mimidae, estimating the divergence of Mimidae from its Sturnidae around 23–28 million years ago in the , with the crown-group radiation occurring shortly after, based on calibrated molecular clocks using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences. This timing supports an early divergence from thrush-like ancestors within the superfamily Muscicapoidea, with the family's radiation occurring in following the broader passerine diversification in the . The origin of Mimidae is well-established, with subsequent facilitated by the post-Gondwanan breakup of continents, leading to in isolated island systems such as the and Galápagos, where multiple genera exhibit rapid speciation driven by habitat variation and allopatry. Key evolutionary events include Pleistocene range shifts in response to glacial-interglacial cycles, which contracted and expanded continental distributions, particularly in , allowing mimids to recolonize habitats post-glaciation and influencing current biogeographic patterns. Biogeographic analyses further highlight dispersal dynamics, with the closure of the approximately 3 Ma enabling exchange between Nearctic and Neotropical faunas.

Role in Scientific History

The Northern Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos), a prominent member of the Mimidae family, received its initial scientific description from Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758, where it was classified as Turdus polyglottos within the thrush genus, reflecting early ornithological tendencies to group New World mimics with Old World thrushes based on superficial plumage and vocal similarities. In the 19th century, John James Audubon's detailed illustrations in The Birds of America (published 1827–1838) highlighted the species' behavioral traits, such as its aggressive defense of nests and complex singing, contributing to broader appreciation of mimids' ecological roles and aiding in their documentation across North American ranges. Charles Darwin's observations of Galápagos (Mimus spp., formerly Nesomimus spp.) during the voyage (1831–1836) played a pivotal role in shaping evolutionary theory; he noted morphological variations among island populations, initially mistaking them for varieties of a single species but later recognizing them as distinct, which prompted his ideas on and descent with modification as detailed in his 1839 Journal and later works. In the 20th century, studies on vocal learning advanced through William H. Thorpe's foundational research at the in the 1950s–1960s, where he demonstrated that songbirds, including mimics like , acquire complex repertoires through auditory experience rather than innate templates alone, using isolation experiments and spectrographic analysis to establish principles of imitative vocalization. Mimids have served as key models in bioacoustics, with northern mockingbirds' extensive —incorporating over 200 syllable types from diverse sources—enabling analyses of and in song production, as shown in studies revealing structured transitions between mimetic and non-mimetic elements. In neurobiology, their vocal systems provide comparative insights to species like the , highlighting parallels in circuits for learning and imitation that inform human speech mechanisms, as evidenced by electromyographic recordings of syringeal activity during . Conservation genetics efforts, particularly for the critically endangered (Mimus graysoni), have utilized sequencing to clarify its phylogenetic placement within Mimidae, revealing low due to island isolation and aiding targeted recovery strategies amid habitat threats. Historically, mimids were debated in , initially subsumed under Turdidae (thrushes) in Linnaean schemes due to convergent traits, but 19th-century revisions elevated Mimidae as a distinct ; molecular phylogenies in the 1990s, including DNA hybridization data, firmly positioned them within the oscine suborder Passeriformes, sister to Sturnidae, resolving long-standing uncertainties about their evolutionary affinities.

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