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Mohammad Beheshti
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Mohammad Hosseini Beheshti (Persian: محمد حسینی بهشتی; 24 October 1928 – 28 June 1981) was an Iranian jurist, poetic philosopher, cleric and politician who was known as the second person in the political hierarchy of Iran after the Revolution.[2] Beheshti is considered to have been the primary architect of Iran's post-revolution constitution, as well as the administrative structure of the Islamic republic. Beheshti is also known to have selected and trained several prominent politicians in the Islamic Republic, such as former presidents Hassan Rouhani and Mohammad Khatami, Ali Akbar Velayati, Mohammad Javad Larijani, Ali Fallahian, and Mostafa Pourmohammadi.[3] Beheshti also served as the Secretary General of the Islamic Republic Party, and was the head of the Iranian judicial system. He further served as Chairman of the Council of Islamic Revolution, and the Assembly of Experts. Beheshti earned a PhD in philosophy, and was fluent in English, German and Arabic.
On 28 June 1981, Beheshti was assassinated in the Hafte tir bombing by the People's Mujahedin of Iran (MEK), along with more than 70 members of the Islamic Republic Party, including four cabinet ministers and 23 members of parliament.[4] The Iranian government blamed Mohammad Reza Kolahi as the MEK operative involved in the incident.[5] Following his death, Ayatollah Khomeini referred to Beheshti as a person who was "as a nation for us."[6]
Early years and education
[edit]Beheshti was born in Isfahan in 1928.[7] He studied both at the University of Tehran and under Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei in Qom. Between 1965 and 1970, he led the Islamic Center in Hamburg where he was responsible for the spiritual leadership of religious Iranian students in Germany and western Europe. In Hamburg, he also worked with Mohammad Khatami and was among his influences. From the early 1960s he was involved in activities against the monarchy and was arrested several times by the Shah's secret police, the SAVAK.
Beheshti joined Ayatollah Khomeini in Najaf, Iraq, where the latter was in exile. There he became part of Khomeini's underground movement.[8]
Career
[edit]Following the Islamic revolution, Beheshti became one of the original members of the Council of Revolution of Iran and soon its chairman. As vice-president, he played a particularly important role in promoting the principle of velayat-e faqih as the basis for the new constitution. In the first post-revolutionary Iranian parliament, he led the Islamic Republic party together with Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani. (However, he never campaigned for the parliament, for he was already the head of Iran's Supreme Judicial System). Behesti was the founding member, first general secretary and a central committee member of the party.[9] He was also planning to run for the presidency in the first presidential elections, but withdrew after Ayatollah Khomeini told a delegation of Rafsanjani and Khamenei that he preferred non-clerics as presidents, which led to the Islamic Republic party's endorsement of (firstly) Jalaleddin Farsi and (subsequently) Hasan Habibi as candidate.[10]
Assassination
[edit]On 28 June 1981, Beheshti was killed in the Hafte tir bombing during a party conference. A spokesman for Iran's revolutionary guards said in an interview that a People's Mujahedin of Iran member, Mohammad Reza Kolahi, had been responsible.[11][5]
According to James Buchan, the Islamic Republic of Iran first blamed the Tudeh Party, SAVAK, and the Iraqi regime. Two days later, Ruhollah Khomeini accused the MEK.[12] A few years later, a Kermanshah tribunal executed four "Iraqi agents" for the incident. Another tribunal in Tehran executed Mehdi Tafari for the same incident. In 1985, the head of military intelligence informed the press that this had been the work of royalist army officers. Iran's security forces blamed the United States and "internal mercenaries".[13]
Along with Beheshti, many clerics, ministers, and officials also died in the bombing.[14] Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini was reportedly very moved by Beheshti's death.[15] A commemoration ceremony is organized each year on the day of Beheshti's assassination.[16]
Works
[edit]Beheshti authored numerous books during his life. After his death, around 24 books were written about him during 30 years. Some of the books are the product of his lectures.[17] Some of his works were translated into Arabic. Some of them are as follows:
- Background of the birth of Islam (translated to English)
- Philosophy of Islam[18]
- Dos and Don'ts
- Al Ghavaed Va Al Feghhiyat
- Islamic Economy
- Right and Fault
- Pilgrimage in Quran
- Unity in Quran
- The Problem of Property
- God from the Viewpoint of the Quran
- Banking and Financial Laws in Islam
- What Do We Know about the Political Party?
- Review and Analysis of Jihad, Justice, Liberalism, Imamate
- School and Specialty
Opinions
[edit]Beheshti had an important role in writing the constitution of Iran, particularly the economic section. He believed in cooperative companies (Ta'avoni) in the field of economy and partnership and co-operation in lieu of competition in economic affairs. According to him, in Ta'avoni companies there is no middle man between producer and consumer. He also asserts that in such entities, legal rights belong to members rather than stock holders.[19] He claims the foundation of Iran's Constitution to be Islamic, and that Iran's revolutionary Islamic system is at the same time a people-oriented system according to the volition of the Iranian people. This system is designed for the betterment and evolution of humankind.[20] According to Beheshti, one of the most important pillars of political thought is that human could walk in right path along with faith to truth.[21]
Philosophy of jurisprudence
[edit]According to Beheshti, the origin of property and possession in Islam is working.
Epistemology
[edit]Beheshti raised some epistemological questions in Knowledge from the Quran's View Point. He believed that knowledge no definition, and that no definition can be found. Beheshti believed there are only four sources of knowledge: perception, introspection, reason and revelation (or Vahy). He coupled an empiric attitude with foundationalism in his structure of knowledge.[22]
Anthropology
[edit]Beheshti, opposed to modernism, believed that there is a strict relationship between individual and collective aspects of human being. According to him, although the history of humans shows that they are always tend to falsehood (or Batil), the Quran says there is a strong link between humanity and truth. Beheshti also emphasized on the theory of Fitarat (innateness or primary nature) in anthropology. Beheshti also believed the human soul had to be considered in the whole rather than in part. According to the theory of primary nature, one of the characters of human soul is volition and choosing. At the same time humans undertake responsibility for their actions. Humans have two important qualities: freedom of choice and responsibility. In other words, Beheshti believes Islam has a realist slant in respect to humans as it considers humans as a mix of freedom of choice and responsibility. Whilst humans are given choice, faith has an important role in this way and could help humans in making decision.[23]
Museum
[edit]Seyyed Mohammad Beheshti's house in the Gholhak neighborhood was turned into a museum in July 1992. The house consists of two parts and the artists tried to show both parts; A part of Beheshti's social life is like the meeting room, where many things happened before and after the Islamic Revolution, and he was arrested at least twice by SAVAK agents; There are also several meetings between religious modernists, the Revolutionary Council, the Council of Fighting Clergy that have been formed in this place, which are related to his social life in this house. The other part is the family part of the building, which evokes memories of his behavior with the family.[24][25]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ "خادم بقعه شهید بهشتی اهل مزار شریف هست". farsnews. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
- ^ "BEHESHTI WAS SEEN AS NO. 2 FIGURE IN IRAN AFTER THE ISLAMIC REVOLUTION". The New York Times. 29 June 1981.
- ^ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Mohammad Hosayn Beheshti". britannica. Retrieved 24 October 2003.
{{cite web}}:|last1=has generic name (help) - ^ Rubin, Barry M.; Rubin, Judith Colp (2008), "The Iranian Revolution and The War in Afghanistan", Chronologies of Modern Terrorism, M.E. Sharpe, p. 246, ISBN 9780765622068,
In Tehran, Iran, a bomb set by the Mujahideen-e Khalq (MEK), a leftist group with a philosophy combining Marxism and Islam, explodes at the headquarters of the ruling Islamic Republican Party, killing 73 people, including the party's founder, chief justice Ayatollah Mohammad Beheshti, four cabinet ministers and 23 parliament members.
- ^ a b "IRANIAN GOVERNMENT EXECUTES 27 IN CRACKDOWN ON LEFTIST GROUPS (1981)". The New York Times. 7 July 1981.
- ^ "Imam Khomeini – Beheshti Was Himself a Nation for Us: Imam Khomeini". en.imam-khomeini.ir.
- ^ Jessup, John E. (1998). An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Conflict and Conflict Resolution, 1945-1996. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 62. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2017.[ISBN missing]
- ^ Samii, Abbas William (1997). "The Shah's Lebanon policy: the role of SAVAK". Middle Eastern Studies. 33 (1): 66–91. doi:10.1080/00263209708701142.
- ^ Asayesh, Hossein; Adlina Ab. Halim; Jayum A. Jawan; Seyedeh Nosrat Shojaei (March 2011). "Political Party in Islamic Republic of Iran: A Review". Journal of Politics and Law. 4 (1). doi:10.5539/jpl.v4n1p221. Retrieved 29 July 2013.
- ^ Rouleau, Eric (1980). "Khomenei's Iran". Foreign Affairs. 59 (1): 1–20. doi:10.2307/20040651. JSTOR 20040651.
- ^ Boffey, Daniel (14 January 2019). "Death of an electrician: how luck run out for dissident who fled Iran in 1981". the guardian. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
- ^ James Buchan (2013). Days of God: The Revolution in Iran and Its Consequences. Simon & Schuster. p. 293. ISBN 978-1416597773.
- ^ "33 HIGH IRANIAN OFFICIALS DIE IN BOMBIMG AT PARTY MEETING; CHIEF JUDGE IS AMONG VICTIMS", The New York Times, 29 June 1981
- ^ Ganji, Manouchehr (21 September 2017). Defying the Iranian Revolution: From a Minister to the Shah to a Leader of Resistance. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275971878 – via Google Books.
- ^ Video Iran Negah
- ^ Mahtafar, Tara (28 June 2009). "Beheshti's Ghost". PBS. Tehran. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
- ^ "report of Beheshti's work". hawzah. Fars news. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ "Philosophy of Islam". al-islam. Islamic Seminary Publications. 27 January 2013.
- ^ Beheshti, An unpublished lecture by Shahid Beheshti, referenced in Ta'avon Magazine, number 28, pp. 4–6, 1375 solar (in Persian)
- ^ theoretical foundations of Iran's constitution, a fragment of Beheshti's book "theoretical foundations of Iran's constitution, special monthly magazine of Voice in Islamic republic of Iran, 9th year, number 54
- ^ Mohammadmahdi, Ghammamy Seyed; Hasan, Hoseini Seyed (1 January 2020). "Theoretical Foundations of the Basic Constitutional Review Emphasizing the constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran". 50 (1): 139–158.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "نقد تحلیلی شناخت از دیدگاه قرآن اثر آیت الله دکتر بهشتی". پرتال جامع علوم انسانی.
- ^ The dignity of human in political system, Sayyed Alireza Hoseini Beheshti, the recognizing the one thought (Baz Shenasi Yek Andisheh, 1380 solar, foundation of publication of Beheshti's thought, p.109-112
- ^ "خانه موزه شهید بهشتی افتتاح شد". ایسنا. 3 July 2013.
- ^ "موزه سرای شهید بهشتی افتتاح شد". خبرگزاری مهر | اخبار ایران و جهان | Mehr News Agency. 3 July 2013.
External links
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Mohammad Beheshti
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Early Life and Formation
Childhood and Family Background
Mohammad Hosseini Beheshti was born on October 24, 1928, in the Lumban (also spelled Lomban or Lonban) district, an older neighborhood near Chaharsuq in Isfahan, Iran.[1][10][11] He was raised in a devout Shi'ite Muslim family steeped in religious scholarship, with his father, Sayyid Fadl Allah Beheshti, serving as a local cleric, religious scholar (alem), and prayer leader in Isfahan.[1][11] Beheshti was the only son among three siblings, with two sisters, and both paternal and maternal grandfathers were established scholars in Isfahan's clerical circles.[11] His maternal grandfather, Haj Mir Mohammad Sadegh, was noted in family records around 1929, reflecting the lineage's ties to traditional Islamic learning.[10] Beheshti began formal schooling at age four, consistent with early education practices in religious families of the time, which emphasized foundational Islamic studies alongside basic literacy.[11] The family's environment, marked by clerical duties and proximity to Isfahan's scholarly community, provided an upbringing oriented toward religious observance and intellectual discipline from infancy.[12]Initial Religious Education in Iran
Beheshti commenced his formal religious education in 1942 at the age of 14, enrolling at Sadr Madrasa in Isfahan, where he pursued studies in Islamic sciences including Arabic literature, fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), logic, and foundational philosophy.[13][14] These courses laid the groundwork for his clerical training, emphasizing textual analysis and rational argumentation within Shi'a scholarship. Concurrently, he acquired proficiency in English, which later facilitated his engagement with Western ideas and expatriate Iranian communities.[13] In 1946, Beheshti relocated to Qom, the preeminent center of Shi'a theological learning in Iran, to advance his studies at the Hawza Ilmiyya seminary.[10] There, he trained under leading marja' al-taqlid and scholars, notably Grand Ayatollah Hossein Borujerdi, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Ayatollah Muhammad Reza Muhaqqiq Damad, and Allameh Tabataba'i, focusing on advanced jurisprudence, usul al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence), philosophy, and irfan (mysticism).[12][15] He joined the Hujjatiyya Seminary established by Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi Hujjat, an institution known for its rigorous curriculum and emphasis on ethical discipline, where Beheshti distinguished himself through methodical study and teaching assistant roles.[1] By 1948, while continuing seminary work in Qom, Beheshti passed the entrance examination for Tehran University, supplementing his hawza education with formal courses in religious studies to bridge traditional Islamic learning with modern academic methods.[12] This phase solidified his reputation as a disciplined and intellectually versatile cleric, preparing him for broader roles in religious propagation before his departure for Europe in the early 1950s.[15]Pre-Revolutionary Activism
Domestic Opposition to the Shah
From the early 1960s, Mohammad Beheshti engaged in opposition activities against the Pahlavi monarchy, aligning himself with Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's nascent resistance network that criticized the Shah's secular reforms and authoritarian governance.[16][14] These efforts included participation in clerical protests in Qom, where Beheshti taught at religious seminaries and contributed to the theological critique of the regime's policies, such as land redistribution and women's suffrage under the White Revolution, which many ulama viewed as undermining Islamic authority and traditional structures.[16][17] Beheshti's domestic activism drew repeated scrutiny from SAVAK, the Shah's secret police, resulting in multiple arrests throughout the 1960s and 1970s for his role in anti-regime organizing.[16] In 1975, SAVAK detained him briefly on suspicion of subversive clerical networking.[17] By 1978, amid escalating nationwide demonstrations triggered by inflammatory articles against Khomeini and economic discontent, Beheshti was arrested again for his direct involvement in coordinating protests and mobilizing seminary students against the government.[14][16] Upon releases from imprisonment, Beheshti intensified his efforts by organizing public demonstrations and underground study circles in Qom that disseminated Khomeinist ideology, framing the Shah's rule as imperialist and un-Islamic.[18] These activities positioned him as a key liaison between Qom's clerical establishment and broader opposition elements, though his pragmatic approach—emphasizing structured resistance over overt militancy—distinguished him from more radical factions.[16] Despite SAVAK's surveillance and intermittent detentions, Beheshti evaded exile until later, sustaining domestic networks that amplified clerical dissent until the revolutionary upheaval of 1978–1979.[17][14]Exile and Activities in Europe
In December 1965, Beheshti arrived in Hamburg, West Germany, to lead the newly established Islamic Center Hamburg, which he helped found as a hub for Shi'i worship and education among Iranian expatriates.[19][7] There, he provided religious instruction and philosophical guidance to Iranian students, fostering networks that propagated Islamist critiques of the Pahlavi monarchy's secular policies and Western influences.[20] These efforts extended to establishing additional Shi'i centers in Hessian cities like Frankfurt and Offenbach, serving as focal points for expatriate youth opposed to the Shah's regime. Beheshti's tenure in Germany, spanning until 1970, emphasized jurisprudential studies and organizational training, drawing on his Qom background to train a cadre of clerics and activists who later contributed to revolutionary structures.[19] He collaborated with figures like Mohammad Khatami, promoting a vision of Islamic governance that rejected monarchical authoritarianism. Upon returning to Iran, repeated arrests for anti-regime activities prompted his departure in late 1977 or early 1978, initially aligning with Khomeini in Iraq before relocating to France following Khomeini's expulsion there in October 1978.[14] In Neauphle-le-Château near Paris, Beheshti emerged as Khomeini's chief deputy from November 1978 onward, coordinating clandestine communications, fundraising, and propaganda to sustain domestic protests against the Shah.[9][20] He leveraged European-based Iranian student groups—networks he had cultivated earlier—to amplify revolutionary messaging via tapes and publications smuggled into Iran, while advising on tactical alliances to accelerate the monarchy's collapse. These activities solidified his role in bridging clerical ideology with practical opposition logistics.[14]Revolutionary Involvement
Alliance with Khomeini and Ideological Foundations
Beheshti developed a close alliance with Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in the early 1960s amid shared opposition to Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's White Revolution reforms, which clerics viewed as undermining Islamic authority and traditional structures.[14] Having received stipends through Khomeini from Ayatollah Hossein Borujerdi in 1947 and 1948 while studying in Qom, Beheshti aligned with Khomeini's circle during the 1963 uprising against land reforms and women's suffrage, participating in protests that led to Khomeini's arrest and exile.[1] This period marked Beheshti's shift toward active resistance, including multiple arrests, solidifying his role as a key supporter in the clerical network challenging the monarchy's secularization.[14] In 1965, Beheshti was appointed head of the Hamburg Islamic Center in West Germany, a position that enabled him to propagate Khomeini's anti-Shah messages among Iranian expatriates and European Muslims, transforming the center into a revolutionary hub for distributing tapes and literature.[21] He led the center until 1970, fostering networks that later coordinated protests and funding for the opposition, while studying philosophy and jurisprudence to refine Islamist organizational strategies.[1] Upon returning to Iran briefly and facing further repression, Beheshti rejoined Khomeini in Najaf, Iraq, in the mid-1970s, coordinating clandestine activities from exile until Khomeini's move to France in 1978, where Beheshti acted as an intermediary, including authorizing contacts with Western diplomats to facilitate the revolution's logistics.[20] Ideologically, Beheshti's foundations rested on Twelver Shiite jurisprudence, emphasizing the guardianship of the jurist (velayat-e faqih) as a mechanism to preserve divine sovereignty in the occultation of the Twelfth Imam, directly endorsing Khomeini's doctrine that a qualified cleric holds comprehensive authority over society to enforce Sharia.[8] He argued for an adaptive ijtihad—independent reasoning—to modernize Islamic governance without compromising core principles, positing that even the Prophet Muhammad's era required contextual reforms, thus justifying a post-prophetic faqih-led state as both restorative and progressive.[8] Rejecting nationalism as a divisive substitute for pan-Islamic unity, Beheshti prioritized faith-based political cohesion, critiquing secular ideologies for fragmenting the ummah and enabling tyranny absent religious oversight.[22] This framework, shared with Khomeini, framed the revolution not as mere regime change but as reestablishing an idealized caliphate model, with the faqih countering Western materialism through institutionalized clerical supervision.[23]Organizational Role in Overthrowing the Monarchy
Beheshti, a close confidant of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, coordinated clandestine negotiations in Tehran during January 1979 with senior figures from the Shah's military and intelligence services, aiming to neutralize potential resistance and facilitate a peaceful transfer of power amid the collapse of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi's regime following his exile on January 16, 1979.[20] These efforts, conducted on Khomeini's behalf, reflected Beheshti's strategic acumen in bridging revolutionary demands with pragmatic concessions to avert civil war.[16] Following Khomeini's return from exile on February 1, 1979, Beheshti was appointed on February 3 to the Council of the Islamic Revolution—a body Khomeini established to oversee the revolutionary transition, appoint interim officials, and direct local committees (komitehs) that dismantled monarchical authority.[16] [24] As the council's first secretary, Beheshti managed its operations, coordinating the seizure of government buildings, purging of loyalist elements, and integration of revolutionary militias, which culminated in the Iranian military's declaration of neutrality on February 11, 1979, and the resignation of Prime Minister Shapour Bakhtiar, marking the monarchy's overthrow.[16] [24] Beheshti's prior experience in clerical networks, including his oversight of religious opposition cells in Qom and coordination with exiled leaders during the 1978 protests, enabled him to unify disparate Islamist factions, mosques, and bazaari elements into a cohesive front against the Pahlavi state.[16] His role emphasized administrative precision over public agitation, positioning him as a key architect of the revolution's institutional capture rather than its street-level mobilizations.[16]Establishment of the Islamic Republic
Leadership in the Islamic Republican Party
Beheshti co-founded the Islamic Republican Party (IRP) on February 23, 1979, shortly after the Iranian Revolution's success, positioning it as the primary vehicle for clerical dominance in the nascent Islamic Republic.[25] As the party's secretary-general, he was nominated to lead its organizational efforts, drawing on his prior experience in revolutionary committees to mobilize ulama and Islamist supporters.[26] The IRP's platform emphasized the implementation of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist) under Ayatollah Khomeini, rejecting secular or liberal alternatives in favor of a theocratic governance structure rooted in Shia jurisprudence.[27] Under Beheshti's leadership, the IRP rapidly consolidated power by engineering the marginalization of rival factions, including nationalists and leftists, through control of key institutions.[26] The party dominated the March 1980 presidential election by backing Abolhassan Banisadr initially before withdrawing support, and it secured a majority in the May 1980 Majlis elections, forming the largest bloc with over 130 seats aligned to its ideology.[16] Beheshti orchestrated the IRP's strategy of infiltrating revolutionary councils and media outlets, such as founding the Jomhuri-e Eslami newspaper in May 1979 to propagate Islamist narratives and counter opposition propaganda.[28] This dominance enabled the party to veto appointments and policies diverging from strict Islamic governance, effectively sidelining groups like the Freedom Movement and Mojahedin-e Khalq.[29] Beheshti's tenure as IRP leader intertwined with his judiciary role, amplifying his influence but drawing criticism from opponents who accused him of monopolizing power to suppress dissent.[9] He directed the party's elimination of competing political entities through legal and extralegal means, including purges in the bureaucracy and military, which critics attributed to authoritarian consolidation rather than democratic pluralism.[26] By mid-1981, the IRP under Beheshti had become Iran's de facto ruling apparatus, with core members like Ali Khamenei and Mohammad Javad Bahonar holding pivotal government posts, though this centralization fueled internal tensions and external attacks from groups viewing the party as a clerical oligarchy.[27] His assassination on June 28, 1981, in the Hafte Tir bombing decapitated the leadership, yet the IRP's structures endured, paving the way for Khamenei's succession as secretary-general.[29]Drafting and Implementation of the Constitution
Following the Iranian Revolution, Mohammad Beheshti was elected on August 3, 1979, to the Assembly of Experts for the Drafting of the Constitution, securing one of Tehran's seats with significant support as a key Khomeini ally and cleric.[16] The 73-member body, comprising mostly Shiite jurists, convened to revise an initial June 1979 draft modeled partly on the French Fifth Republic's presidential system, which lacked explicit provisions for clerical oversight.[30] Beheshti, recognized as the assembly's influential figure, led efforts to integrate Islamic jurisprudential principles, particularly emphasizing Sharia implementation and limiting secular deviations.[31][24] A pivotal contribution was Beheshti's advocacy for velayat-e faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist), Khomeini's doctrine vesting ultimate authority in a supreme jurist to ensure governance aligned with Islamic law, overriding popular institutions if needed.[5] Facing opposition from secular and leftist factions favoring a stronger presidency without clerical veto, Beheshti defended the concept in assembly debates, asserting it preserved popular voting while requiring public recognition of the jurist's divine legitimacy, thus reconciling republican forms with theocratic substance.[32] This framework, enshrined in Articles 5, 107–112, empowered the Guardian Council—chaired by jurists—to vet laws and elections for Islamic compliance, a mechanism Beheshti helped design to counter Western-influenced liberalism.[5][23] The assembly completed revisions by October 24, 1979, producing a final text blending elected branches with juristic supervision, which Beheshti's faction dominated against alternatives like a prime ministerial system.[33] The document was ratified by the assembly on November 15, 1979, and submitted for national referendum.[34] On December 2–3, 1979, amid post-revolutionary consolidation and suppression of dissent, voters approved it with 99.3% support on a 63% turnout, officially establishing the Islamic Republic's hybrid governance.[35] Implementation commenced immediately, with the constitution mandating formation of bodies like the Guardian Council by mid-1980; Beheshti, as a Revolutionary Council member, influenced early institutional setups to enforce its Islamic parameters, including judicial independence under Sharia and curbs on non-Islamic parties.[16][5] Critics, including exiled liberals, later contested the process's legitimacy due to exclusionary tactics, but Beheshti maintained it reflected Iran's Shiite majority's will, prioritizing causal fidelity to Islamic sovereignty over pluralistic concessions.[36] The framework endured, shaping Iran's dual executive-legislative system despite amendments in 1989.[37]Tenure as Head of the Judiciary
Beheshti was appointed Head of the Judiciary by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini on August 29, 1979, succeeding Nasser Yeganeh, and served until his assassination on June 28, 1981.[38] [17] As the first chief justice of the Islamic Republic, he oversaw the transition from the Pahlavi-era legal system to one grounded in Shia Islamic jurisprudence, emphasizing the supremacy of sharia over secular codes.[39] [40] During his tenure, Beheshti established judicial committees tasked with drafting new civil and criminal codes derived directly from Shia fiqh, aiming to replace pre-revolutionary laws with Islamic principles such as hudud punishments and qisas retribution.[39] He implemented organizational reforms, including the creation of specialized branches for public and revolutionary courts, to streamline adjudication and enforce revolutionary ideals.[40] These innovations prioritized rapid resolution of cases involving threats to the new regime, such as corruption, espionage, and opposition to velayat-e faqih, often through simplified procedures that bypassed appeals in ordinary courts.[4] Beheshti supervised the Revolutionary Courts, which had been initiated earlier under Khomeini's direct order but expanded under his authority to prosecute former Shah officials, military personnel, and perceived counter-revolutionaries.[4] [41] These courts issued death sentences in high-profile cases, including against generals and SAVAK agents, contributing to hundreds of executions in 1979–1981 as part of consolidating Islamic governance amid ongoing unrest.[42] Critics, including international human rights observers, contended that the courts' single-judge format and limited evidentiary standards facilitated summary justice without due process, enabling the elimination of political rivals under the guise of Islamic legality.[42] [4] Beheshti justified these measures as essential for protecting the revolution from monarchical remnants and external influences, arguing that traditional Islamic adjudication inherently balanced retribution with divine mercy.[40] His leadership integrated the judiciary with other revolutionary institutions, such as the Islamic Revolutionary Council, where he concurrently served, ensuring alignment between legal rulings and political objectives like purging Ba'athist and leftist elements.[43] By early 1981, the system had processed thousands of cases, laying the foundation for a theocratic judiciary that prioritized doctrinal conformity over procedural uniformity.[39] Beheshti's abrupt death in the Hafte Tir bombing left the judiciary under interim leadership, with his successor, Abdul-Karim Mousavi Ardebili, inheriting a framework marked by both structural consolidation and accusations of authoritarian excess.[38][43]Intellectual and Philosophical Views
Jurisprudential Innovations and Islamic Governance
Beheshti contributed to Shia jurisprudence by refining the doctrine of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the Islamic jurist), positing it as a mechanism to ensure governance adheres to divine law during the occultation of the Imam. He grounded this authority in traditional fiqh sources, arguing that the supreme jurist's broad powers—encompassing oversight of state institutions—balance divine imperatives with communal necessities, as reflected in Article 5 of the 1979 Iranian Constitution. This framework prioritized collective welfare over individual or factional interests, integrating jurisprudential rulings with accountability measures derived from community consent and adherence to sharia, thereby distinguishing Islamic rule from autocratic systems.[23] In applying these principles to Islamic governance, Beheshti advocated for a hybrid structure that incorporated consultative bodies and popular participation while subordinating them to juristic supervision. He emphasized the role of pious, competent experts in leadership positions, rejecting secular rationalism in favor of revelation-informed reason, and supported mechanisms like the Islamic Consultative Assembly to channel public input without compromising sharia primacy. This approach influenced the constitution's design, including provisions for electing representatives and an Assembly of Experts to select the supreme leader, fostering what he termed religious democracy rooted in Quranic calls for unity and fraternity (e.g., Surah al-Hujurat 49:10).[18][23] Beheshti's jurisprudential innovations extended to practical lawmaking, where he directed the formation of committees to codify civil and criminal laws from Shia sources, adapting fiqh to modern state functions such as economic management and societal order. He viewed law as indispensable for societal administration, insisting on absolute obedience to divine ordinances interpreted by a marja' taqlid, yet allowing limited inclusion of non-Muslim specialists if they upheld Islamic limits. These efforts underscored his causal view that effective governance demands alignment of human institutions with eternal principles, preventing the moral decay he associated with unchecked materialism.[39][18][44]Critiques of Western Secularism and Materialism
Beheshti rejected Western materialistic conceptions of human nature, which he described as viewing mankind as the evolutionary descendants of apes, thereby denying spiritual origins and divine purpose as articulated in Islamic texts such as Surah al-Hujurat (49:13).[22] He argued that such ideologies foster societies obsessed with scientific, industrial, and economic expansion, treating material prosperity and pleasure as ultimate ends rather than means to spiritual elevation.[45] In these systems, specialization becomes a tool for dominance by experts whose moral degeneracy or irreligiosity is overlooked, as long as technical efficiency is maintained, leading to governance detached from ethical imperatives.[45] Beheshti's critique extended to Western secularism, which he saw as inherently flawed for severing religion from public life and entrusting authority to those unbound by faith, resulting in social disorder and ineffective rule.[45] He identified secular models, exemplified by the Pahlavi regime's adoption of authoritarian structures influenced by Western paradigms, as primary causes of Iran's pre-revolutionary weakening, marked by political instability and erosion of justice without monotheistic foundations.[46] Secularism, in his view, promotes a false neutrality that undermines divine sovereignty, contrasting sharply with Islamic governance where leadership must align with revelation to preserve societal integrity. Tied to this, Beheshti faulted liberalism—the ideological bedrock of much Western secularism—for prioritizing individual liberty and human reason above divine revelation, thereby neglecting the "visible and invisible limitations" imposed by religious law and enabling practices like moral laxity in public spheres.[47] This overemphasis, he contended, benefits only elites while exacerbating inequality and disbelief among the impoverished, as freedom without divine bounds devolves into corruption rather than true emancipation.[47] Ultimately, Beheshti advocated an Islamic alternative where material pursuits serve transcendent goals, ensuring harmony between worldly progress and spiritual fulfillment.[45]Views on Epistemology and Human Nature
Beheshti integrated reason and revelation as interdependent sources of knowledge, rejecting the secular confinement of epistemology to empirical or rational methods alone. In Philosophy of Islam, co-authored with Muhammad Jawad Bahonar, he posited that definitive knowledge (yaqin) arises from the convergence of intellectual reasoning, Quranic revelation, and sensory experience, all oriented toward recognizing divine unity (tawhid).[48] Revelation, he argued, supplies truths beyond the scope of unaided intellect, such as eschatological realities, while reason serves to interpret and apply them without contradiction.[49] This synthesis drew from his studies under Allama Tabatabai, encompassing Avicennian logic and Transcendent Theosophy, enabling a structured deduction from Islamic premises to practical governance.[1] He critiqued modern Western epistemologies, particularly liberalism, for dismissing non-rational sources like prophecy and intuition, which he deemed essential for comprehensive truth.[47] Knowledge, in Beheshti's view, is not merely accumulative data but a transformative recognition of the unseen (ghayb), validated through alignment with scriptural authority and logical coherence, fostering both individual certainty and societal order.[48] On human nature, Beheshti affirmed an innate disposition (fitrah) toward God and ethical conduct, rooted in the soul's primordial creation, as per Quranic exegesis.[48] This primary nature equips humans with volition and selective capacity, distinguishing them from deterministic animal instincts and imposing moral responsibility for choices amid environmental influences.[48] Propensities for virtue or vice can be modulated by upbringing, geography, and society, yet the core fitrah persists, compelling reversion to monotheism absent corruption. Morals, he maintained, are inherently embedded, not arbitrary constructs, with divine law aligning legislation to this anthropology for human flourishing.[48] Beheshti viewed martyrdom as the ultimate realization of this spiritual journey, stating: "ما از شهدا چیزی کم نداریم، آنها به مقصد رسیدند و ما هنوز در راه هستیم" ("We are not lacking anything from the martyrs; they have reached their destination, and we are still on the way"). This emphasizes that martyrs have attained the exalted goal of martyrdom and eternal felicity, while others must continue along the path to achieve the same.Assassination and Immediate Aftermath
The Hafte Tir Bombing Event
On June 28, 1981 (corresponding to 7 Tir 1360 in the Iranian calendar), a powerful bomb detonated at the headquarters of the Islamic Republican Party in Tehran during an evening meeting of party officials.[16][50] The explosion occurred while Mohammad Beheshti, serving as the party's secretary-general and head of Iran's judiciary, was presiding over the gathering.[51] The blast resulted in the deaths of 72 individuals, including Beheshti, four cabinet ministers, and over 20 members of parliament affiliated with the party.[52] Initial reports from the scene described multiple explosions that caused extensive structural damage to the building, with debris scattered across the area and fires breaking out in adjacent structures.[50] Rescue efforts were complicated by the collapse of floors and the presence of unexploded devices, underscoring the attack's scale and premeditation.[51] Beheshti's body was identified among the victims through personal effects and partial remains, confirming his immediate death from the detonation's force.[16] The event, known as the Hafte Tir bombing, marked one of the deadliest single incidents in the early post-revolutionary period, targeting key figures central to the new Islamic government's consolidation.[53]Attribution to the Mujahedin-e Khalq and Broader Context of Post-Revolution Violence
The Hafte Tir bombing on June 28, 1981, which killed Mohammad Beheshti along with approximately 72 other high-ranking officials of the Islamic Republican Party, was attributed by the Iranian government to the Mujahedin-e Khalq (MEK), an opposition organization that had initiated an armed insurgency against the post-revolutionary regime earlier that month.[54] The MEK, blending Islamist and Marxist ideologies, had initially supported the 1979 Revolution but fractured with Ayatollah Khomeini's faction over disputes including the doctrine of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist) and the rejection of pluralistic governance; this led the group to boycott parliamentary elections in May 1980 and escalate to violent operations following mass protests on June 20, 1981.[55] While the MEK did not issue an immediate public claim of responsibility for the specific attack—unlike some of their other operations—contemporary investigations and subsequent analyses, including those from Western observers, identified MEK operatives as perpetrators, with the bomb concealed in audio equipment at the party headquarters.[54][55] This assassination occurred amid a surge of MEK-led violence in 1981, including targeted bombings and assassinations against regime figures, as the group sought to destabilize the consolidating Islamic Republic through urban guerrilla tactics; estimates indicate the MEK conducted dozens of such attacks between June and December 1981, resulting in hundreds of deaths among officials and civilians.[55] In response, the Iranian authorities intensified suppression, declaring the MEK illegal and deploying revolutionary courts to try and execute suspected members and sympathizers; human rights monitors documented over 2,000 executions of political prisoners, predominantly MEK affiliates and leftist dissidents, in the latter half of 1981 alone, often following summary trials lacking due process.[42] The broader post-revolution landscape from 1979 to 1982 featured multifaceted violence, with ethnic separatists in Kurdistan and Khuzestan, monarchist remnants, and secular leftists like the Fedaiyan-e Khalq mounting sporadic armed resistance, while the regime's security forces and militias quelled uprisings through mass arrests and lethal force, contributing to a death toll exceeding 10,000 from political violence and executions during this period.[42] This cycle of opposition terrorism and state reprisals solidified the Islamic Republic's authoritarian structures, prioritizing internal security over reconciliation with ideological rivals.[56]Legacy and Assessments
Institutional Achievements and Enduring Influence
Beheshti was appointed a member of the Islamic Revolutionary Council on February 3, 1979, by Ayatollah Khomeini, serving as its first secretary and contributing to post-revolutionary administrative reforms.[24] He played a leading role in the Assembly of Experts, drafting the 1979 Constitution that established the Islamic Republic's hybrid governance model, incorporating Sharia-based judiciary provisions and the doctrine of velayat-e faqih.[24] [5] This framework centralized authority under a supreme jurist while including elected bodies, shaping Iran's dualistic political system. As the inaugural head of the judiciary from late 1979 to June 1981, Beheshti restructured the legal apparatus to prioritize Islamic jurisprudence, dismissing secular judges and establishing revolutionary courts to prosecute opponents of the regime.[40] [57] During his tenure, he implemented foundational reforms, including the integration of civil law elements with Sharia, which formed the enduring basis of Iran's judicial hierarchy, including the Supreme Court he led.[40] [58] Beheshti also founded the Islamic Republican Party in 1979, which dominated the first Majlis elections in 1980 and advanced clerical consolidation of power, including the impeachment of President Abolhassan Banisadr in June 1981.[24] His institutional designs persist in the unchanged 1979 Constitution—amended only in 1989—and the judiciary's ongoing emphasis on Islamic oversight, with annual Judiciary Week observances since 1981 marking his assassination as a foundational event.[40][5]