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Narbona or Hastiin Narbona (c. 1766 – August 31, 1849) was a Navajo chief who participated in the Navajo Wars. He was killed in a confrontation with U.S. soldiers on August 31, 1849.

Key Information

Narbona was one of the wealthiest Navajo of his time due to the number of sheep and horses owned by his extended family group. He was not a "chief" of all of the Navajo, as the independent minded Navajo had no central authority. However, he was very influential in the tribe due to the status gained from his wealth, personal reputation, and age during the time he negotiated with the white men.

Narbona became one of the most prominent tribal leaders after the massacre of 24 Navajo leaders in June, 1822 at Jemez Pueblo. They had been travelling under flag of truce to a peace conference with the New Mexican government.[1][2] In February 1835 he led the Navajo to a decisive victory in an ambush of a Mexican expedition in the Chuska Mountains led by Captain Blas de Hinojos. The site of the battle, Copper Pass (Béésh Łichííʼí Bigiizh), is now known as Narbona Pass.[2][3]

In 1849, Narbona, with several hundred of his warriors, rode to meet a delegation led by Col. John M. Washington to discuss peace terms between the Navajo and the "New Men", Americans who had driven the Mexicans from what is now the Southwestern United States. The U.S. party was composed of both U.S. Regulars and local New Mexican auxiliaries.

After several misunderstandings, translators managed to work out an acceptable list of terms for peace between the two parties. As the peace council broke up, Sadoval, a young Navajo warrior of some distinction, began riding his horse to and fro, exhorting the 200–300 Navajo warriors in attendance to break the new treaty immediately. At this point, a New Mexican officer claimed that he noticed a horse that belonged to him being ridden by one of the Navajo warriors. Washington, put in the position of backing one of his troopers, demanded that the horse be immediately turned over. The Navajo refused, and the horse and its rider departed.

Washington commanded his troops to unlimber their cannon and prepare to fire if the Navajo refused to return the, now absent, property the Americans said was stolen. The Navajo again denied his request, and the Americans opened fire with cannon as well as rifles.

Narbona was mortally wounded in the fusillade, and according to eyewitnesses, he was scalped by one of the New Mexico militiamen. He was buried by his sons in the traditional Navajo fashion, bound in a "death knotted" blanket and cast into a crevice. Two of his finest horses were slaughtered to ensure he would not walk to the afterlife.

See also

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Notes

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Narbona

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Narbona (c. 1766 – August 31, 1849), also known as Narbona , was a prominent chief and one of the wealthiest members of his people, amassing large herds of sheep, horses, and cattle through raiding and trade during a period of intense intertribal and colonial conflicts. As a respected headman of the Tachííʼníí clan, he served as a spokesman in councils with Spanish, , and early American authorities, advocating for peace treaties amid the that spanned from the late 18th to mid-19th centuries. Narbona's leadership was defined by efforts to balance diplomacy and defense against expanding settler pressures, including signing a short-lived agreement with New Mexico's governor in 1831, though recurring raids and retaliatory expeditions perpetuated hostilities. His tenure coincided with the 's pastoral expansion and slave-raiding economy, which bolstered tribal resilience but drew punitive campaigns from Mexican forces, such as the 1805 expedition he survived. The chief's death came during a 1849 U.S. Army expedition under Colonel John M. Washington into territory, where a led by Narbona sought negotiations but escalated into over disputed , resulting in his fatal wounding and by a member of the American party. This incident, occurring at present-day Narbona Pass, intensified resistance and foreshadowed the U.S. government's later forced relocation policies, underscoring the causal role of territorial incursions in the erosion of indigenous autonomy.

Early Life

Birth and Clan Affiliation

Narbona was born circa 1766 in the homeland of present-day northwestern and northeastern . This approximate birth year aligns with historical accounts placing him as an adult leader by the early , during periods of conflict with Spanish and authorities. He belonged to the Táchiiʼnii , known in as the Red Running Into the Water People or Red Streak clan, a matrilineal group emphasizing descent through the mother's line in traditional Navajo . Clan membership shaped identity, kinship ties, and rules, prohibiting marriage within one's own or maternal grandfather's clan, which reinforced alliances across Navajo bands. As a member of this clan, Narbona's early affiliations likely connected him to eastern Navajo groups near the , though specific birthplace details remain undocumented in primary records.

Socioeconomic Context in Navajo Society

Navajo society in the late 18th century relied on a economy augmented by dry farming and raiding. Sheep, , and —acquired through and raids following Spanish introductions in the 1600s—formed the backbone of wealth accumulation, with herds providing meat, for , transport, and goods. Cultivation of corn, beans, and squash occurred in floodplains or arroyo bottoms, yielding supplementary food but vulnerable to and requiring communal labor. Raiding parties targeted Spanish, , and settlements for and captives, enhancing economic resilience amid environmental constraints and external pressures. Social organization was decentralized and matrilineal, organized around clans and extended families that co-resided matrilocally, sharing productive resources like herds and fields. Leadership emerged informally through (naatʼáánii) selected for oratorical skill, raid success, and holdings rather than , fostering consensus-based within local groups. Economic inequality was evident, as prosperous herders amassed herds numbering in the thousands, attracting poorer kin or dependents for labor and alliance, a pattern persisting into the where concentration enabled influence akin to later "ricos." This structure supported adaptability to arid landscapes but exposed society to volatility from intergroup conflicts and colonial encroachments, with wealth in animals conferring both prestige and vulnerability to reprisals. By Narbona's era, such dynamics positioned livestock-rich individuals as de facto leaders, underpinning Navajo resilience against Spanish and Mexican forces.

Rise to Prominence

Impact of the 1822 Jemez Massacre

The Jemez Massacre occurred in March 1822 when Mexican soldiers ambushed and killed 24 emissaries traveling to Santa Fe for peace negotiations with the newly independent Mexican government. This betrayal decimated a cadre of experienced Navajo headmen who had advocated for dialogue amid ongoing tensions over raiding and captives, abruptly ending formal peace efforts and fostering deep distrust toward Mexican authorities. The loss of these leaders created an immediate vacuum in Navajo governance, which operated through consensus among influential heads rather than centralized . Narbona, already distinguished by his wealth in and established networks from prior engagements, filled this gap by assuming a leading role in coordinating tribal responses. His elevation marked a pivot toward more assertive defense strategies, as he returned from expeditions among the —undertaken during the preceding —and recognized the futility of further concessions to . In direct response, Navajo bands launched extensive retaliatory raids across , targeting settlements in the Río Abajo and beyond, which inflicted significant losses on Mexican civilians and . These operations, larger in scope than prior skirmishes, underscored the massacre's catalytic effect in hardening resolve and sustaining a cycle of reprisals that persisted into the , while solidifying Narbona's status as a principal strategist against external threats.

Accumulation of Wealth and Influence

Narbona's wealth in Navajo society derived principally from holdings, with his group—termed an "outfit"—controlling large numbers of sheep and horses that supported subsistence and . Sheep provided for textiles traded or used internally, while horses enabled mobility for herding and raiding; these assets were expanded through systematic raids on Mexican and settlements, where Navajo parties captured animals, goods, and human captives to augment labor for herd management. By the early , Narbona had established himself among the wealthiest leaders, a status sustained amid recurrent hostilities with neighboring powers that necessitated defensive and offensive actions to protect and grow herds. , often women and children taken during such expeditions, contributed to economic productivity by herding sheep, tending crops in limited arable areas, and producing goods like rugs, thereby freeing able-bodied men for warfare and further acquisition. Influence accrued to Narbona through the prestige of commanding successful raids and the resources they yielded, fostering loyalty within his outfit and broader alliances among bands. This model, rooted in demonstrated efficacy in resource accumulation and , elevated him as a respected spokesman in intertribal councils, where oratory skills reinforced derived from material prosperity.

Conflicts with Neighboring Powers

Engagements with Spanish and Mexican Forces

Narbona's engagements with Spanish forces occurred amid broader Navajo resistance to colonial incursions in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, involving raids on outlying settlements and missions for such as sheep and horses, which supplemented Navajo pastoral economies. Spanish military responses included punitive campaigns aimed at subduing Navajo groups and securing captives for labor, reflecting a pattern of where Navajo fighters exploited terrain advantages in the canyons and mountains of their homeland. While specific battles led personally by Narbona during this era are not well-documented in primary accounts, his emergence as a warrior aligns with intensified Navajo raiding activities against Spanish , driven by competition over grazing lands and resources. Following Mexican independence in 1821, conflicts with Mexican authorities escalated, as the new government continued and expanded slave-raiding expeditions into territory to supply labor demands in settlements. Narbona, having consolidated influence after the 1822 betrayal at Jemez Pueblo, directed retaliatory strikes on Mexican villages and wagon trains along trade routes like the , capturing goods and occasionally prisoners to offset losses from Mexican incursions. Mexican forces, often numbering in the hundreds under captains from Santa Fe, ventured into Navajo lands with the dual aim of punishing raiders and seizing women and children—practices incentivized by bounties on captives—leading to frequent skirmishes where Navajo archers and early users inflicted disproportionate casualties through ambushes. These operations underscored the causal dynamics of economic predation, with Mexican slaving directly provoking Navajo defenses and perpetuating cycles of reprisal. Narbona's strategic acumen in these encounters emphasized mobility and knowledge of local geography, enabling smaller Navajo bands to evade or trap larger Mexican columns, as evidenced by repeated repulses of expeditions into the and Canyon de Chelly regions. Mexican records, such as those from Santa Fe governors, document losses of troops and supplies in such forays, attributing them to coordinated resistance under leaders like Narbona, whose forces prioritized protecting herds and kin groups from enslavement. This era of engagements, spanning the 1820s to mid-1840s, hardened Navajo military cohesion while exposing vulnerabilities in Mexican frontier defenses, reliant on poorly supplied rather than standing armies.

The 1829 Battle and Narbona Pass

In early 1829, a Mexican military expedition under Captain Blas de Hinojos advanced into the of present-day northwestern , aiming to curb raids on Mexican settlements and assert control over traditional grazing lands. Narbona, informed of the intrusion through scouts, mobilized approximately 250 warriors to intercept the force at Béésh Łichííʼí Bigiizh (Copper Pass), a narrow defile in the mountains previously known to Americans as Washington Pass. Positioning his men on elevated terrain overlooking the pass, Narbona orchestrated an , initiating the attack with coordinated war cries and a volley of arrows that decimated the exposed Mexican column. The forces exploited the terrain's advantages, raining projectiles from above while avoiding direct engagement, which led to heavy casualties and a of the expedition; survivors fled southward, abandoning supplies and leaving the pass littered with the dead. This halted the immediate threat and bolstered Narbona's reputation as a defender of Navajo sovereignty against incursions, which had intensified following Mexico's independence from in 1821. The battle underscored the 's tactical proficiency in mountainous warfare, relying on mobility, knowledge of local geography, and rather than pitched confrontations. In commemoration of Narbona's leadership, the Navajo renamed the pass in his honor, a designation that persists today as Narbona Pass, symbolizing resistance to external domination. The event occurred amid broader Navajo-Mexican hostilities, where mutual raiding for livestock and captives had escalated, but this clash represented a rare large-scale defensive success for the Navajo against a formal punitive force. Mexican records, though sparse, acknowledge the defeat as a setback in frontier pacification efforts, contributing to ongoing cycles of retaliation.

Attempts at Diplomacy

Negotiations During Mexican Rule

During Mexican rule over (1821–1846), diplomatic efforts between leaders and authorities focused primarily on halting mutual raids, exchanging captives taken in conflicts, and establishing , but these initiatives repeatedly faltered due to weak , cultural misunderstandings, and reciprocal violations. Treaties signed in by Facundo Melgares, in 1824 by José Antonio Vizcarra, in 1839 by Manuel Armijo, and in 1844 by Juan Andrés Archuleta typically mandated the return of prisoners (with Mexicans often exempting their own captives held as peons), cessation of hostilities against settlements, and allowances for commerce or settlement near pueblos, yet persistent and slave raids undermined compliance on both sides. Narbona, who ascended to prominence among the following the Mexican of 24 Navajo delegates during peace talks at Jemez on March 13, 1822, did not directly participate in these Mexican-led negotiations according to available records. This event, in which Mexican forces under María Chaves ambushed the envoys after luring them under truce pretenses, fostered deep distrust toward Mexican diplomacy, aligning with Narbona's subsequent emphasis on defensive warfare and raiding rather than renewed talks. The 1844 at Santo Domingo , for instance, promised Navajo groups land grants adjacent to Mexican villages and a mutual alliance against foreign incursions (implicitly the ), but it failed to curb hostilities, as Navajo factions continued reprisal raids amid Mexico's inability to deliver on reciprocal captive releases or provide security. These abortive pacts highlighted the limitations of centralized governance in addressing the autonomous, band-based structure of society, where leaders like Narbona wielded influence through demonstrated prowess in conflict rather than formal accords. By the mid-1840s, escalating tensions and Mexico's preoccupation with internal instability left -Mexican relations in a state of warfare, paving the way for Narbona's later engagements with invading U.S. forces.

Initial Interactions with United States Post-1846

Following the ' occupation of during the Mexican-American War, Colonel Alexander W. Doniphan led an expedition into lands in late 1846 to assert American authority and secure peace. On November 22, 1846, at Bear Spring (Ojo del Oso), Doniphan's forces, numbering around 350 men, convened a with leaders, where Narbona served as a prominent spokesman for the tribe. Narbona, then approximately 80 years old and a respected elder, participated alongside other chiefs including José Largo, Sarcilla Largo, and , amid tensions heightened by Narbona's wife reportedly urging resistance during the proceedings. The resulting memorandum, known as the Bear Spring Treaty, outlined terms for perpetual peace between the and the , extending protection to settlers and Indians as part of the "American people." Key provisions included mutual pledges to cease hostilities, facilitate and passage with safeguards, restore captives and stolen property acquired since August 18, 1846 (the date of Kearny's entry into Santa Fe), and allow for the purchase of unretrievable prisoners. chief Largo expressed skepticism in council speeches, questioning why the should refrain from defending against Mexican incursions when Americans had recently warred against Mexico themselves. Despite these reservations, Narbona and 13 other leaders affixed their marks to the document, marking the first formal diplomatic engagement between the and the incoming U.S. forces. Although the aimed to curb raids that had persisted under rule, it was never ratified by the U.S. Senate and proved short-lived, with mutual violations soon resuming as American settlers encroached and livestock raids continued into 1847. Narbona's involvement reflected a pragmatic leadership effort to assess and accommodate the new power, yet underlying distrust—stemming from unproven U.S. commitments to suppress reprisals and protect trade routes—foreshadowed escalating frictions. This initial outreach set a precedent for subsequent U.S. attempts but highlighted the challenges of enforcing agreements amid decentralized band structures and ongoing territorial disputes.

Death and Escalation of Hostilities

The 1849 Peace Delegation Confrontation

![Sketch of Navajo leader Narbona by Richard H. Kern][float-right] In 1849, following the ' annexation of after the Mexican-American War, Colonel John M. Washington led a expedition into lands to establish and assert federal authority. , then approximately 83 years old and a prominent headman known for prior diplomatic efforts, assembled several hundred warriors and rode to meet Washington's delegation near the future site of Narbona Pass on 31. The encounter aimed to negotiate terms ending hostilities, with advocating for accommodation to preserve autonomy amid encroaching American settlement. Initial discussions proceeded amicably, focusing on mutual cessation of raids and recognition of territorial boundaries. However, tensions erupted when a Indian serving as a guide in Washington's party accused Narbona's group of possessing a stolen from him. Washington demanded the animal's return, but Narbona and his delegates refused, asserting Navajo ownership. As the began to withdraw from the , interpreting the impasse as concluded, Washington ordered his troops to fire on the departing party. The volley killed Narbona, who suffered a mortal wound, along with five or six other , including warriors and possibly delegates. Eyewitness accounts, including a sketch of Narbona made by expedition artist Richard H. Kern hours before the shooting, document the headman's presence and the sudden shift to violence. The unprovoked attack, as described in contemporary narratives and oral traditions, shattered prospects for immediate treaty ratification with Narbona's faction and fueled distrust of U.S. intentions. Washington's decision reflected a of aggressive enforcement in frontier diplomacy, prioritizing demonstration of dominance over sustained .

Circumstances of Killing, Scalping, and Burial

On August 31, 1849, during a peace delegation near present-day Chaco Canyon in territory, Narbona, an elderly Navajo leader, approached U.S. forces commanded by Colonel John M. Washington with a group of unarmed Navajo representatives to negotiate terms following the American occupation of . The meeting, intended to establish a allowing Navajo access to water sources while curbing raids, deteriorated into violence over a dispute involving stolen horses allegedly taken by Navajo herders from Mexican settlers allied with the U.S. expedition. Washington's interpreter demanded restitution, but tensions escalated when Navajo delegates, including Narbona, resisted concessions, prompting Washington to order his troops to fire on the group without warning. Narbona, approximately 83 years old and mortally wounded by gunfire in the ensuing , collapsed amid the chaos that killed at least nine other delegates. Eyewitness accounts from both sides confirm that, as Narbona lay dying, a New Mexico militiaman under U.S. command scalped him—a practice typically associated with frontier warfare but here applied to a prostrate elder during , reportedly amid competition among soldiers for the trophy, including his head. This act violated contemporaneous U.S. military protocols against , which had been officially discouraged since the early , though frontier irregulars often disregarded such restraints. Following the killing, Narbona's sons retrieved his body under cover of night and performed a traditional Navajo burial, wrapping it in a knotted blanket symbolizing unresolved grievances and interring it in an undisclosed location to prevent further desecration, in line with Diné customs for high-status leaders slain in conflict. The scalp and head were later displayed or bartered among U.S. personnel before being discarded, exacerbating Navajo distrust of American overtures and contributing to retaliatory raids that prolonged hostilities.

Legacy and Historical Assessment

Role in Navajo Resistance and the Prelude to the Long Walk

Narbona rose to prominence as a leader through his command of warriors in conflicts with Spanish colonial forces and, later, independent during the early . Following the 1822 massacre of Navajo delegates at Jemez , he coordinated retaliatory raids and defensive actions that preserved Navajo autonomy amid persistent threats from southern neighbors seeking captives and livestock. His emphasized selective engagements, including victories that bolstered Navajo military confidence and resource acquisition via raiding economies. As U.S. forces assumed control of after the 1846 , Narbona initially pursued diplomatic avenues alongside continued resistance to American expansion into lands. He participated in early negotiations, such as those with Colonel Alexander Doniphan in 1846, aiming to define boundaries and curb mutual raids, though these yielded temporary truces rather than enduring peace. Persistent stock raids on settlers and U.S. retaliatory expeditions, however, perpetuated a , with Narbona's strategic oversight directing warriors to target vulnerable outposts and herds. The fatal confrontation on August 31, 1849, at Chushí'íłí (present-day Washington Pass), during a peace delegation led by Colonel John M. Washington, marked a pivotal rupture. After Navajos surrendered arms under truce assurances, a dispute escalated when a Navajo horse kicked a U.S. officer, prompting gunfire that killed Narbona and several others; his scalp was taken by a Mexican-American ally, symbolizing profound betrayal in eyes. This incident, viewed by Washington as justified self-defense, eroded prospects for accommodation, as Narbona's death removed a influential voice for negotiation and galvanized younger leaders like toward uncompromising defiance. In the ensuing decade, the absence of Narbona's moderating influence amid unchecked raiding—estimated at hundreds of incidents annually—prompted U.S. fort construction (e.g., Fort Defiance in 1851) and punitive campaigns, hardening mutual animosities. These dynamics framed the prelude to the Navajo War of 1863–1864, where intensified American operations under General James H. Carleton, including Kit Carson's destruction of crops and hogans, compelled mass surrender to avert annihilation, initiating the Long Walk to Bosque Redondo. Narbona's legacy in resistance thus contributed causally to the protracted guerrilla tactics that delayed U.S. subjugation until measures proved decisive.

Balanced Evaluation of Leadership: Achievements Versus Provocations

Narbona's leadership exemplified effective resistance against Mexican incursions, notably through the 1835 ambush at Narbona Pass, where his forces decisively defeated an estimated 1,000 Mexican soldiers despite being outnumbered, thereby safeguarding Navajo territory and livestock herds in the region. This victory, retaliatory to prior Mexican slave raids and punitive expeditions, underscored his strategic acumen in , allowing the Navajo to maintain economic independence via expansive sheep ranching—he was among the wealthiest Navajo leaders, controlling vast herds that sustained networks. Such achievements preserved Navajo autonomy for decades amid cycles of borderland conflict, as his prominence rose following the 1822 of 24 Navajo delegates at Jemez Pueblo, positioning him as a stabilizing headman who unified disparate bands against external threats. However, Narbona's tenure also perpetuated provocative raiding practices integral to warrior culture, including attacks on settlements for sheep, horses, and captives, which exacerbated retaliatory campaigns like the 1822 Jemez incident and fueled a vicious cycle of violence rather than deterrence. These operations, while economically vital for herd augmentation in arid lands, targeted civilian pueblos and traders, alienating potential allies and inviting disproportionate responses, such as the 1829 expedition that Narbona countered but which highlighted the raids' role in escalating hostilities. Critics, including contemporary accounts and later U.S. military reports, viewed such actions as unprovoked aggression that hindered diplomatic overtures, though oral traditions frame them as defensive reciprocity against systemic slave-taking by southern adversaries. In diplomacy, Narbona's efforts balanced provocation with ; he served as a key spokesman in 1849 peace talks with U.S. forces under Colonel John M. Washington, advocating restraint amid ongoing raids, yet the delegation's ambush—precipitated by mutual distrust—revealed limitations in his influence over younger warriors committed to raiding traditions. This duality delayed full-scale U.S. intervention but arguably sowed seeds for the ' intensification post-1849, as his death symbolized failed conciliation and emboldened retaliatory policies culminating in the Long Walk. Overall, while his military prowess and wealth-building secured short-term tribal resilience, the entrenched raiding economy he championed proved maladaptive against industrialized American expansion, prioritizing cultural imperatives over strategic de-escalation.

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