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Pacific gopher snake
Pacific gopher snake
Pacific gopher snake
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Pacific gopher snake
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Colubridae
Genus: Pituophis
Species:
P. catenifer
Subspecies:
P. c. catenifer
Trinomial name
Pituophis catenifer catenifer
(Blainville, 1835)
Synonyms
  • Coluber catenifer Blainville, 1835
  • Pituophis catenifer
    — Baird & Girard, 1853
  • Pityophis catenifer — Cope, 1900
  • Pituophis catenifer catenifer
    — Stejneger & Barbour, 1917[1]

Pituophis catenifer catenifer is a subspecies of large non-venomous colubrid snake native to the western coast of North America. Pacific gopher snakes are one of California's most common snake species.[2] They often get confused for rattlesnakes because they mimic similar patterns and defense mechanisms. As a result, gopher snakes can often avoid confrontation without needing to rely on their non-venomous nature for survival.[3]

Description

[edit]
The size of this juvenile Pacific gopher snake is shown by comparison with the hands holding it

Pacific gopher snake adults range in size from 3–7 ft (0.91–2.13 m) in total length. However, most of the subspecies reach a length of 4–5 ft (1.2–1.5 m). The hatchlings are relatively long, and they have been recorded at lengths upward of 20 in (510 mm).[4][5]

The Pacific gopher snake has a base color ranging from yellow to dark brown and has a gray coloring on the sides of the body. It is a spotted snake, with the spots being dark brown. Usually there are 41 to 99 spots on the body, while the tail spots range from 14 to 33. The side of the body has 2 or 3 rows of alternating black and brown spots.[6]

A snake with keeled scales, and a narrow head that is wider than the neck, the Pacific gopher snake also displays a protruding rostral scale on the tip of the snout. The two most common base colors are straw and straw gray, though the species' color varies widely.[4] The dorsal blotches, or saddles, are well-defined and generally dark to chocolate brown, though some specimens have had black blotches.[4][5] The side blotches are often brown or gray. The back of the neck is dark brown.[5] In many areas, such as Solano County, California, the snake can be found in a striped morph.[7]

The ventral side may be cream-colored to yellowish with dark spots. On the dorsal side, especially near the tail, there is often a reddish coloration.

Identification

[edit]

As aforementioned, there are two to three rows of spots on the side of the Pacific gopher snake. However, the San Diego gopher snake (P. c. annectens) has 3 to 4rows of smaller spots on its side. The Pacific gopher snake's saddle spots do not have the barren characteristic as those of the San Diego gopher snakes do. Also, the spots in the second row of spots are much larger on P. c. catenifer as compared to P. c. annectens. Finally, the Pacific gopher snake generally has more saddle spots than the San Diego gopher snake.[6]

Feeding behavior

[edit]

The diet of pacific gopher snakes mainly consists of small rodents. They also consume birds, bird eggs, lizards, and occasionally insects or bats, depending on what is available in its habitat. The Pacific gopher snake is diurnal, hunting for prey during the day,[3] however, it is sometimes seen out hunting in night time. It may also exhibit nocturnal behavior in warmer conditions. To hunt, they will enter underground burrows, perch on sites during the day, or strike unsuspecting prey resting at night, ultimately using constriction to immobilize and kill their prey.[8] Its preference for agricultural fields and open spaces makes it an important natural pest controller in its ecosystem, helping manage rodent populations.[9]

Social behavior

[edit]

Like other gopher snakes, the Pacific gopher snake can produce a loud hiss when agitated or fearful.[5] When threatened, this species will inflate its body, flatten its head, and vigorously shake its tail, which may produce a rattling sound if done in dry vegetation.[4][5] However, gopher snakes are non venomous, generally good natured, and not harmful to humans.[5]

Pacific gopher snakes are typically non-social with other snakes, but will share communal hibernacula with other snakes during the winter.[10]

Predators

[edit]

Foxes, badgers, red-tailed hawks, and coyotes are the typical predators of gopher snakes, as well as larger king snakes.[11] Due to the color of their skin pattern, gopher snakes can seek camouflage in gardens and near rocks.[11] However, gopher snakes have defense against predators in which they appear similar to other venomous or dominant snakes, such as vipers and rattlesnakes.[11] These defenses consist of a viper's strike pose and a rattlesnake's tail shake that prevent predators from wanting to approach a venomous snake.[citation needed]

Activity patterns

[edit]

Pacific gopher snakes prefer warmer temperatures, ideally around 75 to 90 °F (24 to 32 °C), and drier habitats such as meadows, fields and agricultural farmlands.[12] They are seldom found in dense forests or cold environments. To maintain warm internal temperatures, Pacific gopher snakes will often bask in sunlight on rocks. When temperatures heat up beyond the Pacific gopher snake's tolerance, they will seek cooler temperatures in burrows, leaf litter, shade, under rocks, or swim in small bodies of water.[13] They will undergo periods of inactivity in the winter from November to March, often residing in abandoned burrows left by other animals.[13]

Life expectancy

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The Pacific gopher snake is observed to live 12 to 15 years in the wild. The oldest known individual lived over 33 years in captivity.[4]

Reproductive behavior

[edit]

Pacific gopher snakes are an oviparous species whose males begin competing for the opportunity to mate with females from June to August. This competition involves aggressive behaviors such as biting, hissing, and attempting to pin one another to the ground. When a female finally successfully mates, she spends up to six weeks locating and preparing an ideal nesting site. These snakes often choose to nest communally, with multiple females laying their eggs in the same location and in some cases a single nest site can contain as many as 50 eggs, providing a shared space for incubation and eventual hatching which typically takes about 2 to 2.5 months.[5]

In captive breeding, the snake goes through a winter brumation period to improve breeding success. The clutches average 12–14 eggs and hatch in the same time period as in the wild.[4]

Geographic range

[edit]

The Pacific gopher snake occupies a vast range up and down the West Coast of the United States,[4] ending in the southern coast of California.[5] These snakes can be found in habitats varying from covered woodland to arid deserts but prefer open prairies or grassy meadows. Gopher snakes are rarely seen above 2,000 ft (610 m), except East from the Mississippi at an altitude of up to 2,700 ft (820 m), and are most commonly seen adjacent to farms in semi-arid brushy areas. The Pacific gopher snake can also be found in southern British Columbia and Alberta, and in Mexico.[14]

Conservation status

[edit]

The Pacific gopher snake is considered to be a species of least concern in terms of conservation.[10] This species is considered a non-threat to society because they are non-venomous and harmless. Gopher snakes create an advantage in maintaining the health of the environment and the population of small mammals like rodents for other predators, and therefore explains why their species remains of least concern.[15] Although their population is generally stable, they still face concerns such as habitat loss, human encroachment, and persecution due to being commonly mistaken as a venomous rattlesnake. Other threats such as human activities that lead to unintentional killings play a role in the impact of the gopher snake's conservation. For example, road traffic is a common threat due to the species being naturally slow and their habit of laying on roads with sun to keep them warm that leads to a variety of roadkill from that population. Consequently, the frequency of road traffic increases the road mortality.[16]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Pacific gopher snake

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Pacific gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer catenifer) is a large, non-venomous colubrid snake native to the , recognized for its robust build and distinctive patterning that often leads to confusion with rattlesnakes. Adults typically reach lengths of 2.5 to 7 feet (76–213 cm), with a body covered in large, alternating dark brown or black blotches on a yellowish, tan, or light brown background, along with smaller dark spots along the sides; hatchlings are born up to 20 inches (50 cm) long and exhibit similar coloration but brighter hues. This snake is a powerful constrictor, preying primarily on small mammals such as and gophers, but also consuming birds, eggs, , and , which it locates by probing burrows with its keen . Widely distributed across low-elevation regions of the Pacific states, the Pacific gopher snake inhabits a range spanning from southern through Washington, , and , including the off , though it is absent from high-elevation Sierra Nevada forests. It thrives in diverse dry habitats below 2,000 feet (589 m), including grasslands, shrubsteppe, open woodlands with ponderosa or white , and agricultural edges, favoring areas with loose, sandy soils for burrowing and . Ecologically significant as a rodent predator, the Pacific gopher snake is diurnal during cooler seasons but may shift to nocturnal activity in hot weather, hibernating communally in winter dens at higher elevations. It exhibits defensive behaviors mimicking rattlesnakes, such as body inflation, loud hissing, head flattening, and tail vibration, but is generally non-aggressive toward humans and plays a key role in controlling pest populations in its range. Reproduction is oviparous, with females laying 3–18 eggs (average 7–8) in loose soil during early summer (June–July), which hatch in fall after an incubation period; breeding occurs in spring (March–May), and juveniles grow rapidly, with females outpacing males under optimal conditions.

Taxonomy

Classification

The Pacific gopher snake is scientifically classified under the Pituophis catenifer catenifer, representing a non-venomous snake within the family . This subspecies belongs to the genus , the species (commonly known as the gopher snake), and serves as the Pacific variant, which is the nominate form of the species. The higher taxonomic hierarchy places it in the order , suborder Serpentes, and class Reptilia, emphasizing its position among colubrid snakes native to . The nominate subspecies P. c. catenifer was first described by French zoologist in 1835, based on specimens from , establishing it as the type locality for the species. Currently, seven are recognized within P. catenifer, including P. c. affinis (Sonoran gophersnake), P. c. annectens ( gophersnake), P. c. deserticola ( gophersnake), P. c. fulginatus (San Lucan gophersnake), P. c. pumilus (Santa Cruz gophersnake), and P. c. sayi (), reflecting regional adaptations across the species' range. This subspecific division accounts for variations in distribution and traits, with P. c. catenifer designated as the reference for the entire complex. Phylogenetically, the Pacific gopher snake is embedded within the North American endemic gopher snake complex of the genus , part of the Lampropeltini in the Colubrinae. Molecular analyses, including sequencing, indicate that P. catenifer forms a monophyletic group closely related to Pituophis ruthveni ( pinesnake) and (northern pinesnake), with subspecies distinctions arising from and morphological differences accumulated over geographic isolation. For instance, P. c. catenifer is differentiated from subspecies like the Sonoran (P. c. affinis) and (P. c. deserticola) variants through allozyme and DNA markers that highlight subtle evolutionary adaptations within the broader radiation across western .

Nomenclature

The scientific name of the Pacific gopher snake, Pituophis catenifer catenifer, derives from Greek and Latin roots that highlight its ecological and morphological traits. The genus combines the Greek words pitys () and ophis (snake), alluding to the species' association with pine woodlands in portions of its range. The specific epithet catenifer is Latin for "chain-bearing," referring to the interconnected, chain-like arrangement of dark blotches along the dorsal pattern. As the nominate subspecies, catenifer denotes the original form described for the . Common names for the Pacific gopher snake emphasize its geographic distribution and predatory habits, including Pacific gopher snake, gopher snake, and in certain western regions where its stout body and rodent-preying behavior are notable. Historical synonyms reflect early taxonomic placements, such as Coluber catenifer, the initial binomial under which it was classified before reassignment to . Additional past names include , used in some 19th- and early 20th-century literature. The taxon was first described in 1835 by French zoologist , who based the description on specimens from , establishing the nominate . Taxonomic revisions during the , including delineations by researchers like Van Denburgh in 1920 for forms such as P. c. rutilus, expanded recognition of intraspecific variation across the broader P. catenifer complex. Further refinements, such as those in Sweet and Parker's 1990 synonymy compilation, solidified the current subspecific framework.

Description

Physical characteristics

The Pacific gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer catenifer) exhibits a robust, heavy-bodied build typical of large colubrids, with adults ranging from 76 to 213 cm (2.5 to 7 ft) in total length, though exceptional individuals can reach up to 275 cm (9 ft); average adult lengths fall between 120 and 180 cm (4 to 6 ft). Hatchlings measure up to 50 cm (20 in) at birth. The snake's body features keeled dorsal scales arranged in 29 to 35 rows at midbody, providing a textured surface suited to its terrestrial lifestyle. The head is bullet-shaped and slightly wider than the narrow neck, with a distinct, pointed rostral scale; the single, undivided anal plate is a key structural trait. Unlike venomous pit vipers, Pacific gopher snakes lack loreal heat-sensing pits and external openings, instead detecting vibrations through the and ground contact. Sexual dimorphism is minimal, with sexes alike in overall appearance. The tail is moderately long. Olfaction is highly developed via the Jacobson's organ, accessed by the forked tongue to sample airborne chemical cues for navigation and prey detection.

Identification features

The Pacific gopher snake ( catenifer) is characterized by a tan to light brown ground color overlaid with 56 to 93 dark brown or black blotches along the body, which narrow and increase in number toward the tail; the ventral surface is pale yellow or cream, sometimes marked with darker spots. Pattern variations occur, including rare striped or patternless morphs in populations from central and west-central , while intergradation with adjacent subspecies like the Great Basin gophersnake can produce intermediate blotch arrangements. Distinctive physical traits aid in identification, including round pupils, the absence of a rattle at the tail tip, and heavily keeled dorsal scales that create a rough, textured appearance. Behaviorally, it flattens its head into a triangular shape and vibrates its tail when threatened, mimicking the posture and sound of venomous vipers. This species is frequently mistaken for rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.) owing to convergent blotched coloration and defensive mimicry, though it lacks heat-sensing facial pits, vertical pupils, and a true rattle. It differs from other gophersnake subspecies through its primarily coastal range in western North America and finer distinctions such as midbody scale rows of 29 to 35 and square blotch shapes (compared to quadrangular in the Great Basin subspecies).

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Pacific gopher snake ( catenifer) is native to western , with its range historically extending from southern in southward through western Washington and to central and northern , north of Santa Barbara County; however, it is now considered extirpated from Washington State as of the 2017 recovery assessment, with current populations primarily in southern , , and . This distribution is primarily in areas west of, but approaching the eastern foothills of, the Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges. The subspecies occupies coastal regions and inland valleys, extending up to approximately 100 miles from the , but it excludes northeastern , where other subspecies such as the Great Basin gopher snake (P. c. deserticola) predominate. Its elevational range spans from up to approximately 2,000 m (6,562 ft), though most commonly below 600 m (2,000 ft). The subspecies' distribution has contracted in northern portions of its range (e.g., extirpated in Washington), but remains relatively stable in core areas of and as of 2025, though local population declines have occurred in areas affected by . No introduced populations of this subspecies are known outside its native range.

Habitat preferences

The Pacific gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer catenifer) primarily inhabits open, dry landscapes across its range, favoring environments such as grasslands, meadows, agricultural fields, woodlands, and savannas. These snakes are well-adapted to semi-arid conditions and can tolerate human-modified areas like suburban edges and farmlands, where they often exploit disturbed habitats for foraging and shelter. While they occasionally occur in or riparian zones, they largely avoid dense forests and wetlands, preferring open terrains that provide ample sunlight and loose substrates. In terms of microhabitats, Pacific gopher snakes frequently utilize burrows in loose, sandy, or friable —often those excavated by like pocket gophers—for refuge, , and overwintering. They also bask on rocky outcrops, talus slopes, or sun-exposed logs, which offer elevated sites for warming while minimizing predation risk. These snakes are adept burrowers themselves, using their robust bodies to navigate underground tunnels, and they select sites with good drainage to prevent flooding during rare wet periods. This species thrives in warm, dry climates with optimal activity temperatures ranging from 24–32°C (75–90°F), aligning with their diurnal habits in sunlit areas during the active season. In cooler northern portions of their range, they hibernate from late fall through early spring in communal dens such as burrows, rock fissures, or deep crevices, emerging when soil temperatures rise sufficiently for mobility. Such adaptations allow them to endure seasonal extremes but limit their distribution to regions with predictable warm periods. Habitat fragmentation poses significant challenges for Pacific gopher snakes, as they require connected landscapes to access grounds, sites, and oviposition locations over large home ranges. , , and road development have isolated remnant patches, reducing dispersal opportunities and increasing mortality from vehicle strikes, which disrupts population viability in fragmented areas. Maintaining corridors of open is essential to support their mobility-dependent life cycle.

Behavior

Activity patterns

The Pacific gopher snake ( catenifer) exhibits primarily diurnal activity patterns, with peak surface activity occurring in the mornings and late afternoons to facilitate basking and while minimizing exposure to midday heat. Individuals often retreat to burrows or shaded areas during the hottest parts of the day to thermoregulate. In regions experiencing extreme heat, such as during summer in arid habitats, the snakes shift toward nocturnal or crepuscular to avoid . Seasonally, activity is influenced by and , with snakes in northern portions of their range (e.g., Washington and ) emerging from winter brumation in underground dens or rock crevices in spring ( to May). They remain active through to , peaking in and for and foraging, before returning to brumation sites in fall. In southern ranges like , the active period extends from to , with brumation limited to colder microhabitats at higher elevations. These snakes are adept climbers, scaling low shrubs or rocky outcrops to access vantage points or escape threats, and capable swimmers, crossing short water bodies such as or when necessary. Environmental factors strongly modulate activity; snakes thermoregulate by basking on sun-warmed rocks or open ground to elevate body temperature, but reduce surface movements during cold snaps or rainy conditions, particularly in spring when precipitation correlates with lower activity levels to conserve energy.

Social and defensive behaviors

The Pacific gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer catenifer) is primarily solitary throughout most of its active period, exhibiting minimal interactions with conspecifics outside of brief mating encounters and winter hibernation. It displays no evidence of territorial behavior, allowing individuals to range widely without defending specific areas. When threatened, the snake employs a suite of defensive strategies to deter predators, including loud hissing that mimics the sound of a , rapid tail vibration against the ground to simulate a rattle, body inflation to appear larger, head flattening to resemble a viper's triangular shape, tight coiling, and repeated bluff strikes. These non-venomous displays are highly effective at discouraging attacks, and the snake rarely bites humans, doing so only when severely harassed, resulting in a painful but harmless . During the brief mating season in spring, males compete for access to females through ritualized involving body intertwining and pushing, where the dominant male remains on top without significant or ; post-mating interactions remain non-aggressive, with individuals separating shortly after. In winter, Pacific gopher snakes aggregate in communal hibernacula such as rocky crevices or burrows, often sharing these sites with other snake species including rattlesnakes, though interactions within these groups are minimal and limited to passive co-occupancy for .

Ecology

Feeding behavior

The Pacific gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer catenifer) exhibits an opportunistic diet dominated by small mammals, particularly such as gophers, mice, voles, and ground squirrels, which comprise approximately 75% of its prey items by volume across North American populations. Birds and their eggs make up about 20% combined, with accounting for roughly 3%, and occasional or other reptiles forming a minor portion; juveniles tend to consume more and relative to adults due to their smaller size. This composition varies slightly by region, with higher lizard consumption in habitats. Hunting primarily involves , where the snake strikes and seizes prey with its mouth before coiling its body around it to suffocate by compressing the chest and preventing heartbeat, often pressing the victim against burrow walls or the ground for leverage. Prey is swallowed whole head-first, with the snake monitoring the victim's pulse to ensure death before consumption. Foraging strategies include active pursuit both diurnally on the surface—in burrows, , or occasionally in low —and nocturnally by ambushing resting prey, with the snake frequently probing or excavating tunnels using its to locate hidden victims. Smaller individuals target accessible prey like in open areas, while larger snakes raid nests for eggs and nestlings, which form a significant portion of avian prey. As a generalist predator with a broad trophic niche, the Pacific gopher snake plays a crucial ecological role in regulating populations, thereby aiding in agricultural and natural landscapes and buffering against fluctuations in single prey species availability.

Predators

The Pacific gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer catenifer) faces predation from a variety of avian, mammalian, and reptilian species across its range. Avian predators primarily include raptors such as red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), which actively hunt snakes in open habitats, and Cooper's hawks (Accipiter cooperii), observed carrying gopher snakes after ambushing them from cover. Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus) also prey on gopher snakes, particularly at night, as documented in Sierran foothill ecosystems where owls have been seen transporting sizable individuals. These birds tend to target juveniles more frequently due to their smaller size and less effective evasion tactics. Mammalian predators of the Pacific gopher snake encompass canids and mustelids that exploit the snake's burrowing habits. Coyotes (Canis latrans) and kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis) are among the most common, often detecting and digging out snakes from burrows or surface refuges. Badgers (Taxidea taxus) similarly pose a threat by excavating burrows to access hibernating or resting individuals. Reptilian predators include larger colubrids, notably California kingsnakes (Lampropeltis californiae), which are resistant to constriction and capable of overpowering and consuming gopher snakes nearly as large as themselves. Other large snakes may opportunistically prey on juveniles or weakened adults in overlapping habitats. Predation risk for Pacific gopher snakes elevates during periods of increased surface activity, such as seasonal migrations between foraging and hibernation sites or communal egg-laying in summer, when exposure to aerial and terrestrial hunters intensifies. Their mottled coloration provides effective background matching camouflage in arid and grassland environments, thereby reducing detection rates by visually hunting predators.

Reproduction and life history

Reproductive cycle

The Pacific gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer catenifer) exhibits a seasonal reproductive cycle aligned with its emergence from brumation in spring. Mating typically occurs from to May, shortly after snakes become active following winter . Males locate receptive females primarily by following chemical cues in the form of pheromones deposited on substrates, which guide them to potential mates over considerable distances. behaviors include the male crawling alongside or over the female to align their bodies, often culminating in the male wrapping his tail around hers to facilitate copulation; males may also engage in with rivals, intertwining and wrestling to establish dominance. Following a period of approximately 4-6 weeks, females, which are oviparous, deposit their eggs between and in concealed sites such as loose moist , abandoned burrows, under rocks, or within decaying logs to maintain and protection. Clutch sizes vary from 3 to 20 eggs, with an average of 6 to 12 leathery-shelled eggs per ; females typically produce only one per breeding season, though rare instances of a second have been documented. There is no after oviposition, as females leave the site immediately to avoid predation risks. Eggs incubate naturally for 60 to 75 days, with optimal development occurring at temperatures of 28-32°C, leading to hatching in late summer or early fall depending on regional climate. Hatchlings emerge fully formed at lengths of 30 to 40 cm, patterned similarly to adults but more vividly colored, and are precocial, dispersing independently to without assistance from adults. is reached at 3-4 years of age for females and slightly earlier for males, allowing reproduction to commence in subsequent springs.

Longevity

In the wild, Pacific gopher snakes typically have an average lifespan of 10 to 15 years, though this is often limited to around 12 to 15 years due to predation by mammals and birds, as well as loss and fragmentation that reduce available resources. In captivity, with appropriate husbandry including stable temperatures and a consistent diet, individuals commonly live 15 to 20 years, and the maximum recorded lifespan exceeds 33 years. Key mortality factors in wild populations include from increasing traffic volumes, direct by humans mistaking them for venomous species, and resulting from prey scarcity in fragmented habitats. As ectotherms, Pacific gopher snakes experience slower metabolic rates compared to endotherms, contributing to delayed and potentially longer lifespans relative to their body size. Juvenile Pacific gopher snakes display rapid growth, hatching at 30 to 40 cm in total length, with growth slowing in adulthood.

Conservation

Status

The Pacific gopher snake (), a of the gopher snake (), is assessed as Least Concern on the at the level, reflecting its wide distribution and stable populations in core habitats across the . This classification indicates no major global threats warranting higher concern, with the subspecies maintaining viability in suitable environments despite localized pressures. In , the subspecies is assessed as Extirpated by COSEWIC. In the United States, the Pacific gopher snake lacks federal listing under the Endangered Species Act and is not considered imperiled nationally, though it receives protection in select state and national parks such as those in . Regionally, it remains common and abundant in and , where it occupies diverse habitats without evidence of widespread decline, but populations in Washington are deemed possibly extirpated based on historical records and lack of recent confirmations. Population estimates highlight its abundance, contributing to large overall numbers across its range exceeding hundreds of thousands of individuals. Herpetological surveys, including visual encounters and trap-based monitoring, track occurrences and vital rates, showing no significant declines in core U.S. populations as of 2025.

Threats

The primary threat to the Pacific gopher snake ( catenifer) is loss driven by and agricultural expansion, which have converted native and shrublands into developed areas, reducing available and sites. In regions like California's Central Valley and the , these conversions have fragmented habitats, isolating communal sites (hibernacula) and limiting dispersal. For instance, in the lower of , historical grassland conversion has left less than 5% of original Garry meadow in near-natural condition, contributing to local extirpations. Direct threats include road mortality, which is particularly high in rural areas where snakes bask on warm pavement for , increasing collision risks with vehicles. Persecution also poses a significant danger, as the species is often mistaken for venomous rattlesnakes, leading to illegal killing by humans despite its non-venomous nature. These factors exacerbate population declines in fragmented landscapes, though overall populations remain stable and abundant across much of the range. Other environmental pressures include the indirect effects of pesticides, such as rodenticides like , which reduce prey availability by poisoning and can secondarily affect snakes that consume contaminated prey. alters temperature regimes, potentially disrupting cues, timing, and hatchling survival at the northern range edges, where cooler conditions already limit viability. , such as Scotch broom (), degrade grasslands by outcompeting native vegetation, though their impact is considered secondary to habitat loss and direct human threats. Conservation efforts focus on mitigation through public education campaigns emphasizing the snake's non-venomous status to reduce , as well as incorporating corridors into land-use planning to connect fragmented areas and facilitate movement. In , protections under wildlife acts and designated areas around hibernacula help safeguard key sites, while no programs are needed given the species' overall abundance and lack of endangered status in most jurisdictions.

References

  1. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/gopher-snake.htm
  2. https://nrm.dfg.ca.gov/FileHandler.ashx?DocumentID=2765
  3. https://wdfw.wa.gov/species-habitats/species/pituophis-catenifer
  4. https://wdfw.wa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/00727/chapter_iv.pdf
  5. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pituophis_catenifer/
  6. https://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=Pituophis&species=catenifer
  7. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102381/Pituophis_catenifer_catenifer
  8. https://www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/virtual_sara/files/cosewic/sr_gophersnake_e.pdf
  9. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S105579039990698X
  10. https://herpetology.inhs.illinois.edu/resources/species-lists/ilspecies/gophersnake/
  11. https://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/Pituophis/catenifer
  12. https://www.gbif.org/species/2453826
  13. https://repfocus.dk/Pituophis.html
  14. https://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_gopher_snake.php
  15. https://cpw.state.co.us/species/gophersnakebullsnake
  16. https://www.herpconbio.org/Volume_4/Issue_3/Kapfer_2009.pdf
  17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269370311_Use_of_the_vomeronasal_system_during_predatory_episodes_by_bull_snakes_Pituophis_melanoleucus
  18. https://www.californiaherps.com/snakes/pages/p.c.catenifer.html
  19. https://californiaherps.com/identification/snakesid/gophersnakessubspecies.html
  20. https://www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/virtual_sara/files/plans/rs_pacific_gophersnake_e_proposed.pdf
  21. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.103070/Pituophis_catenifer
  22. https://www.saczoo.org/pacific-gopher-snake
  23. https://www.oaklandzoo.org/animals/pacific-gopher-snake
  24. https://www.nps.gov/grca/learn/nature/gopher-snake.htm
  25. https://jrodriguez.faculty.unlv.edu/24.pdf
  26. https://idfg.idaho.gov/sites/default/files/wildlife-express-may-2016-gopher-snakes.pdf
  27. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7553&context=condor
  28. https://blog.nature.org/2020/05/26/an-encounter-with-mating-gopher-snakes/
  29. https://webapps.fhsu.edu/ksherp/account.aspx?o=98&t=83
  30. https://fieldguide.mt.gov/speciesdetail.aspx?elcode=aradb26020
  31. https://reptilesmagazine.com/gopher-snake-care-and-breeding-information/
  32. https://curiodyssey.org/animals/our-animals/reptiles/gopher-snake/
  33. https://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/eswp/esr.do?id=16245
  34. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2527626/
  35. https://www.wildlifenomads.com/blog/facts-gopher-snakes/
  36. https://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=pituophis&species=catenifer
  37. https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/virtual_sara/files/cosewic/sas_couleuvre_n_mince_pac_gphr_snk_1012_e.pdf
  38. https://www.dfw.state.or.us/wildlife/living_with/docs/livingwsnakes.pdf
  39. https://www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/virtual_sara/files/plans/rs_pacific_gophersnake_e_final.pdf
  40. https://goert.ca/about/what-remains/
  41. https://bcreptilesandamphibians.ca/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Olson-et-al-_2009.pdf
  42. https://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/recovery/rcvrystrat/gopher_snake_rcvry_strat_130208.pdf
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