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Robert Raikes
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Robert Raikes ("the Younger") (14 September 1735 – 5 April 1811) was an English philanthropist and Anglican layman. He was educated at The Crypt School in Gloucester. He was noted for his promotion of Sunday schools.

Key Information

Family

[edit]

Raikes was born at Ladybellegate House, Gloucester, in 1736,[1] the eldest child of Mary Drew and Robert Raikes, a newspaper publisher. He was baptised on 24 September 1736 at St Mary de Crypt Church in Gloucester. On 23 December 1767, he married Anne Trigge, with whom he had three sons and seven daughters: their oldest son, the Rev. Robert Napier Raikes, was the father of General Robert Napier Raikes of the Indian Army, while another son, William Henley Raikes, was a colonel in the Coldstream Guards and fought for the British in the Napoleonic Wars. Raikes's great-granddaughter Caroline Alice Roberts (1848–1920) was a fiction writer who married the composer Sir Edward Elgar.

Sunday schools

[edit]
The story behind Robert Raikes' Sunday school

Robert was a pioneer of the Sunday school movement, although he did not start the first Sunday School. Some already existed, such as that founded by Hannah Ball in High Wycombe, or the one founded in 1751 in St. Mary's Church, Nottingham which is the first documented known case.[2]

He inherited a publishing business from his father, becoming proprietor of the Gloucester Journal in 1757. He then moved the business into Robert Raikes' House in 1758. The movement started with a school for boys in the slums. Raikes had become interested in prison reform, specifically with the conditions in Gloucester gaol and saw that vice would be better prevented than cured. He saw schooling as the best intervention. The best available time was Sunday as the boys were often working in the factories the other six days. The best available teachers were lay people. The textbook was the Bible, and the originally intended curriculum started with learning to read and then progressed to the catechism.[3][4]

Robert Raikes Statue, Victoria Embankment Gardens SW1 - London
Statue of Robert Raikes next to Queen's Park, Toronto, ON, Canada
Front and back of the 1880 "Centenary of Sunday Schools" medal distributed to children attending Sunday Schools that year.

Raikes used the paper to publicise the schools and bore most of the cost in the early years. The movement began in July 1780 in the home of a Mrs Meredith. Only boys attended, and she heard the lessons of the older boys who coached the younger. Later, girls also attended. Within two years, several schools opened in and around Gloucester. He published an account on 3 November 1783 of Sunday schools in his paper, and later word of the work spread through the Gentleman's Magazine, and in 1784, a letter to the Arminian Magazine.

The original schedule for the schools, as written by Raikes was "The children were to come after ten in the morning, and stay till twelve; they were then to go home and return at one; and after reading a lesson, they were to be conducted to Church. After Church, they were to be employed in repeating the catechism till after five, and then dismissed, with an injunction to go home without making a noise."[5]

There were disputes about the movement in the early years. The schools were derisively called "Raikes' Ragged School". Criticisms raised included that it would weaken home-based religious education, that it might be a desecration of the Sabbath, and that Christians should not be employed on the Sabbath. Some leading ecclesiastics—among them Bishop Samuel Horsley—opposed them on the grounds that they might become subservient to purposes of political propagandism.[6] "Sabbatarian disputes" in the 1790s led many Sunday schools to cease their teaching of writing. Notwithstanding all this, Adam Smith gave the movement his strongest commendation: "No plan has promised to effect a change of manners with equal ease and simplicity since the days of the Apostles."

Despite the controversy, the Sunday Schools grew at a phenomenal rate. By 1788, there were 300,000 children attached to local Sunday Schools.[7] By 1831, Sunday schools in Great Britain were teaching weekly 1,250,000 children, approximately 25 percent of the population. By 1910, there were over 5,500,000 in Sunday Schools throughout the UK.[8] As these schools preceded the first state funding of schools for the general public, they are seen as the forerunners of the current English school system.

References and sources

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Further reading

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Robert Raikes

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Robert Raikes (14 September 1736 – 5 April 1811) was an English publisher, philanthropist, and Anglican layman renowned for founding the movement by organizing the first formal s in in 1780 to teach literacy, basic arithmetic, and Christian doctrine to poor working children during their sole day off from labor. As proprietor and editor of the Gloucester Journal, Raikes leveraged his newspaper to publicize the initiative, beginning with an 1783 article that drew national attention and spurred replication elsewhere. Raikes' endeavor stemmed from observations of juvenile idleness and on Sundays among children, whom he sought to through structured moral and educational activities, initially collaborating with clergyman Thomas Stock to employ women teachers in locations like Sooty Alley. Prior to this, he had engaged in efforts, reflecting a broader commitment to social improvement via practical interventions rather than abstract theory. The schools emphasized reading to instill discipline and piety, though critics later noted limitations such as restricted curricula focused on rote memorization over comprehensive skills. The movement expanded rapidly, with the undenominational formed in 1785 to coordinate growth; by 1818, it encompassed over 477,000 pupils in Britain, influencing educational access for the working classes and extending to and other regions. Raikes received civic honors, including honorary freedom of in 1804, and posthumous monuments such as statues in and , underscoring his role in pioneering voluntary initiatives that preceded state-mandated schooling.

Early Life

Birth and Family Background

Robert Raikes was born in , , in 1736, at the family home of Ladybellegate House, and was baptised at St Mary de Crypt Church. He was the eldest child of Mary Drew, daughter of a local clergyman, and Robert Raikes the Elder (baptised 1690–1757), a printer who founded the Gloucester Journal in 1722 as one of England's earliest provincial newspapers. The Raikes family originated from clergy, with Raikes's paternal grandfather, Reverend Timothy Raikes, serving as vicar of , but had established itself in Gloucester's and by the early . Raikes had five younger siblings: brothers William, Thomas, Richard, and Charles, and sister Mary, several of whom later assisted in the family newspaper business. The household's involvement in exposed Raikes from childhood to the dissemination of news and ideas, shaping his later philanthropic and reformist pursuits.

Education and Early Influences

Robert Raikes received his early education at in , a founded in 1539 and associated with St. Mary de Crypt Church, where he was baptized. He attended until approximately age 14, after which he joined his father's printing and publishing business. Some accounts suggest additional attendance at the King's School in , reflecting the middle-class opportunities available to him as the son of a local printer. Raikes' early influences were shaped primarily by his family, particularly his father, Robert Raikes Sr., a printer, editor of the Gloucester Journal, and advocate for prison reform, from whom he inherited a concern for social issues affecting the poor. Raised in a comfortably middle-class household, he was groomed to succeed in the family trade, receiving a liberal education suited to that path. In his youth, Raikes earned a local reputation for wayward behavior, nicknamed "Bobby Wild Goose" for associating with fashionable but dubious company, though he reformed following his father's sudden death in 1757, when he assumed control of the newspaper at age 21. This transition marked a pivotal shift, exposing him to the harsh social conditions of Gloucester—such as child labor and vagrancy—that later informed his philanthropic efforts, while his Anglican upbringing and early conversion to Christianity instilled a moral framework emphasizing personal responsibility and community welfare.

Journalistic and Professional Career

Inheritance and Management of the Gloucester Journal

Robert Raikes inherited the Gloucester Journal from his father, Robert Raikes the Elder, upon the latter's death on September 7, 1757, at the age of 68. As the eldest son, Raikes, then 21 years old, took over the established printing and newspaper business, which his father had co-founded with William Dicey as a regional targeting areas including the West Midlands, , and . The Journal, first advertised on March 10, 1722, and issuing its inaugural edition on April 9, 1722, had operated as a weekly providing , prices, and advertisements, distributed through a network of agents to achieve an estimated circulation of around 1,000 copies. Under Raikes' management, the business relocated to Southgate Street in August 1758, integrating the office with his residence for efficient operations. He personally edited and contributed content to the , which maintained its reputation as the county's premier enterprise, incorporating technical improvements and enhancements such as ornamental script and the city's arms in 1760, along with gradual enlargements from 18 by 11 inches to 20 by 14 inches by 1792. To meet publication deadlines, often occurred on evenings, commencing around 7 p.m. and concluding by 4 a.m. , a practice that drew criticism for violating the and was partially discontinued with the end of Sunday postal dispatches on May 9, 1791. Pricing evolved from 3 pence initially to 6 pence by 1797, reflecting added taxes and expansions. Raikes leveraged the Journal to advance social causes, including early advocacy for temperance from 1757, , and opposition to practices like cockfighting and harsh debtor treatment. The paper's success enabled his , though it faced challenges such as legal fines, including £50 in 1792 for an advertisement violation, and broader skepticism toward press involvement in during periods of political tension. He sold the business in 1802 to for £1,500 plus an annual £300 income, marking the end of his direct management after over four decades.

Advocacy for Prison Reform

Raikes, as editor of the Gloucester Journal, utilized editorials to publicize the squalid and unregulated conditions in Gloucester gaol, including , outbreaks, and lack of basic provisions such as and , which contributed to monthly prisoner deaths. These publications aimed to rally public sympathy and financial support, successfully raising funds to aid prisoners' families and press for local improvements. In 1773, Raikes accompanied the prison reformer during a visit to gaol and hosted him, aligning with Howard's national campaign documented in The State of the Prisons (1777), which highlighted similar systemic failures like the mixing of debtors, criminals, and the ill in unsanitary facilities. Sympathizing with Howard's findings, Raikes and local figures initiated targeted enhancements, such as better provisioning and separation of inmates, though broader reforms remained limited until parliamentary acts in 1774 addressed some national issues like hygiene and funding. Raikes experimented with rehabilitative measures, employing literate debtors in the gaol to teach reading to other prisoners, but observed high as inmates reverted to upon release, reinforcing his view that prevention through early moral education was preferable to remedial efforts. This decade-long campaign, spanning the 1770s, underscored Raikes' emphasis on causal factors like idleness and fostering criminality, influencing his later pivot to preventive .

Initiation of Sunday Schools

Observations of Social Conditions in Gloucester

In the late 1780s, Robert Raikes observed stark social conditions among the in 's impoverished suburbs, particularly around St Catherine Street, where children from factory laboring families congregated. These children, often employed in and pin-making factories for 14-hour shifts six days a week under harsh conditions, were left idle on —their only day free from work—leading to widespread disorder. Raikes noted groups of "wretchedly ragged" youths swarming the streets, engaging in cursing, swearing, , fighting, and other vices, behaviors so profane that they evoked "an idea of " to observers. A local inhabitant remarked to Raikes: "Ah sir, on these wretches spend their time in noise and riot, playing at and cursing and swearing in a manner so horrid as to convey to any serious mind an idea of ," highlighting the unchecked idleness that exacerbated petty and decay in a city of about 7,000 residents living at subsistence levels. This neglect stemmed from the absence of accessible education for the illiterate poor, as existing grammar schools demanded prior skills unattainable for such families, trapping generations in and vice. Raikes' encounters, struck by the "rowdy, uneducated children" rioting without supervision, underscored broader pressures that prioritized child labor over development, fostering environments ripe for social ills like blasphemy and street disturbances on the . These conditions, amid Gloucester's rising petty , directly prompted his advocacy for structured Sunday instruction to instill , , and religious morals as a counter to idleness-driven depravity.

Establishment and Operational Details

In July 1780, Robert Raikes established the first Sunday school in a house located in Sooty Alley, Gloucester, England, initially targeting the children of chimney sweeps and other impoverished working youths who labored six days a week and engaged in disruptive activities on Sundays. This initiative arose from Raikes's observations of juvenile idleness and vice in the city's slums, prompting him to collaborate with Rev. Thomas Stock, rector of St. John's Church, who assisted in drafting operational rules and contributed financially. The inaugural class comprised approximately 10 to 14 boys, with Raikes personally inviting participants from poor families after securing parental consent. Operations commenced with paid lay instructors, primarily women such as Mrs. Meredith, whom Raikes employed at a rate of one per week, supplemented by sixpence from in some instances. Instruction focused on basic through reading, , and moral precepts aimed at curbing , , and Sabbath-breaking while fostering habits of industry and obedience to . Children attended in two daily sessions, arriving in clean clothing—often provided or enforced by attendants—and were organized into small classes under strict discipline, including rewards for punctuality and penalties for infractions to instill regular attendance and decorum. Raikes funded the endeavor personally, covering teacher wages and basic supplies without initial church affiliation, emphasizing voluntary lay management over clerical oversight.

Expansion and Methodological Features

Curriculum Focused on Literacy and Morality

The curriculum in Robert Raikes' Sunday schools prioritized basic skills to equip impoverished children with the ability to read religious texts independently, using the as the primary textbook for instruction. Lessons typically divided the day between reading and writing exercises in the morning and more structured scriptural study in the afternoon, enabling children—who often worked six days a week in factories—to acquire foundational skills otherwise inaccessible due to their socioeconomic conditions. Raikes employed local women, such as Mrs. Meredith in , as instructors for these dame-school-style sessions, focusing on phonetic reading methods tailored to the 's content rather than secular primers. Moral education formed the ethical core of the program, integrating behavioral discipline with Christian principles to counteract the perceived link between illiteracy, idleness, and vice observed among urban poor . Children received explicit training in proper manners, , and reverence, alongside prohibitions on cursing, swearing, and disruptive conduct enforced through Raikes' disciplinarian oversight. This approach stemmed from Raikes' conviction, drawn from experiences, that scriptural would foster self-restraint and ethical habits, such as honest work and submission to , thereby reducing societal ills like juvenile . Writing instruction, when included, emphasized moral reinforcement over rote mechanics, aligning with Wesleyan guidelines that de-emphasized secular writing on Sundays to prioritize . The dual emphasis on and was not merely additive but causally linked in Raikes' model: reading proficiency unlocked direct engagement with biblical precepts, which in turn cultivated internalized moral virtues absent in the children's unregulated weekday lives. Early accounts report tangible behavioral shifts, with participants exhibiting improved and reduced after consistent attendance, validating the curriculum's intent to leverage education as a deterrent to . While arithmetic appeared in some expanded iterations, the core remained literacy-enabled moral edification, distinguishing Raikes' schools from purely academic endeavors.

Teaching Practices and Discipline

In Robert Raikes' Sunday Schools, instruction centered on basic , with the serving as the core text for reading practice, supplemented by moral lessons derived from its content rather than rote . Older pupils frequently acted as monitors, teaching younger children in a system that prefigured later monitorial models. Teachers, often paid women for girls' classes and men for boys', employed varied methods including , object lessons—such as demonstrating magnetic attraction with to symbolize the pull of virtuous —and discussions aimed at instilling civil conduct and religious principles. Sessions followed a structured routine, typically from 10 a.m. to noon and 1 p.m. to 5 p.m. on , encompassing reading exercises, repetition, and mandatory attendance at church services to reinforce moral and devotional habits. Some schools incorporated brief weekday gatherings during factory breaks for continued reinforcement, prioritizing the occupation of idle time to deter vice. Discipline reflected the era's authoritarian norms, emphasizing obedience to social superiors and strict behavioral codes that banned cursing, swearing, and irreverence while mandating proper deportment—boys learning to bow and girls to curtsey upon entry. Corporal punishment was routine, with teachers wielding canes or birching rods for infractions, and persistent misbehavior prompting parental intervention at home to extend accountability beyond the classroom. In extreme cases, particularly with unruly boys, physical restraints like logs or weights were applied to enforce compliance. Initial harshness gave way to more engaging tactics over time, using tools like magnifying glasses to captivate attention and monitor conduct, aiming to cultivate self-discipline through understanding rather than mere fear.

Personal Life

Marriage and Family

Robert Raikes married Trigge on 23 December 1767 in . The couple resided in , where Raikes continued his journalistic and philanthropic work alongside life. Raikes and Trigge had ten children: three sons and seven daughters. Their eldest son, Robert Napier Raikes, became a and had descendants including a general in the . Little is documented about the specific roles or outcomes of the other children, though the large size reflected common 18th-century patterns among middle-class professionals in .

Religious Convictions and Broader Philanthropy

Raikes adhered to the doctrines of the as a communicant and layman, reflecting evangelical influences within that prioritized personal piety, study, and moral reform. His religious convictions drove a belief in preventive moral education to curb societal vice, evidenced by his later personal awakening through reading to a Sunday school pupil, which deepened his commitment to spiritual instruction over mere behavioral control. While tolerant of Nonconformists like Methodists, Raikes aligned his initiatives with Anglican practices, such as mandatory and catechism recitation, viewing them as essential for instilling duty to and reducing among the poor. Beyond Sunday schools, Raikes' philanthropy emphasized prison reform, beginning in the 1770s with efforts to ameliorate conditions at Gloucester gaol, where he supplied prisoners with basic necessities, organized productive labor, and provided religious teaching to foster rehabilitation over punishment. These activities influenced the Gloucester Prison Act of 1774, which eliminated arbitrary gaoler fees and mandated cleanliness and separation of debtors from criminals, marking early legislative progress in penal humane treatment. A lifelong associate of the evangelical reformer , Raikes hosted him in in 1773 and raised funds to support national prison improvements, intervening personally in cases like commuting a sheep stealer's sentence to enable the man's relocation and later establishment of a Sunday school in . Raikes extended his charitable reach to hospital support and personal acts of generosity, funding care for the ill and providing for household servants, orphans, and children with gifts like and shillings upon his death on April 5, 1811. His approach integrated with practical , prioritizing and influence through reformed individuals, as seen in distributing food and to school attendees' families in locales like in 1785.

Later Years and Death

Continued Involvement and Health Decline

Raikes maintained oversight of the Sunday schools in following their initial establishment, periodically reporting on their progress through articles in the Gloucester Journal, including updates in 1783 and 1784 that highlighted behavioral improvements among participants and reductions in local vice. He continued promoting the model nationally via correspondence and publicity until his retirement from newspaper editing in 1802, after which his public advocacy waned, though he retained personal interest in the local institutions. In his later years, Raikes shifted attention to complementary philanthropic causes, including support for the anti-slavery movement, while receiving civic honors such as the honorary freedom of in 1804. Limited records detail a specific health decline, but he died suddenly of a heart attack on April 5, 1811, at age 75, at his residence, Crypt House on Bell Lane in .

Death and Contemporaneous Recognition

Robert Raikes died on 5 April 1811 from a heart attack at his residence, Crypt House on Bell Lane in , at the age of 75. He was buried in St. Mary de Crypt Church, the same parish where he had initiated his efforts decades earlier. His funeral drew significant local attendance, including numerous children from the s he founded, each of whom received one and a prepared by his wife, . This gesture highlighted the immediate and personal acknowledgment of Raikes' role in providing moral and instruction to working-class youth, whose improved behavior had been noted by magistrates and during his lifetime. By 1811, the model he publicized had proliferated across Britain and beyond, with estimates of over 200,000 children enrolled in similar programs shortly after the 1783 Gentleman's Magazine article that brought his initiative national attention. Though Raikes had retired from newspaper editing in and withdrawn from direct oversight of the schools, his foundational contributions were contemporaneously credited with reducing and fostering among the laboring poor. Local accounts from the period, including those from Gloucester's civic and circles, affirmed his philanthropy's tangible effects, such as decreased rates attributable to schooled children, as reported by contemporary observers like the city's magistrates.

Legacy and Assessments

Empirical Impacts on Education and Crime Reduction

Raikes' initiative in Gloucester, commencing in 1780, yielded observable reductions in juvenile delinquency locally, as children previously engaged in street crimes like pickpocketing on Sundays were instead occupied with schooling. Contemporary accounts noted quieter streets and diminished profanity among youth, with Raikes himself reporting in 1783 that the schools had curbed vagrancy and mischief. By the Easter Quarter Sessions of 1787, no children appeared before magistrates for offenses in Gloucester city or county, a stark departure from prior years marked by frequent juvenile cases, which magistrates and local officials directly attributed to the Sunday schools' disciplinary and moral instruction. The schools' emphasis on reading the and basic introduced to working-class children lacking weekday education, with initial classes in teaching over 100 pupils per Sunday by 1783. Nationally, the movement expanded rapidly, enrolling approximately 250,000 scholars across by 1787 and reaching 500,000 by 1811, primarily among the urban poor. These efforts contributed to broader gains, as Sunday schools provided the primary educational access for many, enabling reading proficiency that supported self-improvement and religious engagement; historians assess them as making the greatest single contribution to working-class before compulsory schooling. While modern econometric analyses of causation remain limited due to data constraints, 19th-century records link the schools' proliferation to sustained declines in youth crime rates, as moral training and supervised reduced idle time and ignorance-fueled vice—factors Raikes explicitly targeted. By the 1830s, with over 1.25 million scholars worldwide influenced by the British model, parliamentary inquiries credited Sunday schools with fostering habits that lowered and supported , though some revisionist views question the magnitude of literacy impacts given the part-time format.

Long-term Influence on Protestant Evangelism and Work Ethic

Raikes's Sunday school model, emphasizing literacy and moral instruction, catalyzed a widespread movement that facilitated by equipping working-class children with the ability to read scripture independently. Within 15 years of Raikes publicizing his efforts in 1780, approximately 250,000 children participated in s across , enabling direct engagement with evangelical teachings and fostering personal conversions. This expansion provided evangelical with a steady influx of young adherents, as the schools prioritized and religious formation, which sustained revivalist impulses in Protestant denominations. The institutionalization of Sunday schools within Protestant churches amplified their evangelistic reach, merging childhood with concepts of evangelical benevolence and contributing to broader endeavors. By promoting scripture-based instruction, the movement reinforced Protestant emphases on individual and moral accountability, influencing 19th-century revivals and the growth of nonconformist groups like Methodists. Regarding the , Raikes's schools instilled habits of , , and obedience in idle or unruly , aligning with Protestant values of as a form of spiritual discipline, though Raikes himself operated within Anglican rather than strict . These practices, observed in industrial contexts like early American mills, helped cultivate a disciplined labor force by framing regular work and moral restraint as extensions of religious duty, indirectly supporting the cultural underpinnings of the amid urbanization. Such training reduced idleness-associated vices, promoting a view of productive labor as conducive to personal and societal improvement under .

Criticisms and Revisionist Debates

Contemporary critics accused Raikes of violating the by conducting educational activities on Sundays, labeling him a "Sabbath breaker" despite his defense that such instruction fostered moral restraint and societal benefit among idle youth. Some Anglican opposed the initiative, viewing it as an encroachment on authority and a potential source of nonconformist influence. Raikes employed strict disciplinary measures in his early schools, including such as birchings and even blistering a child's fingers to enforce attentiveness, practices he later deemed erroneous and moderated toward more humane approaches. The emphasized basic reading and religious instruction but omitted writing and arithmetic, which some historians argue perpetuated class divisions by equipping pupils primarily for labor rather than upward mobility. Revisionist scholarship challenges Raikes's designation as the singular founder of the movement, noting that analogous institutions predated his 1780 initiative; for instance, a operated in as early as 1751, and Hannah Ball established one in around 1769 for moral and literacy training of poor children. In itself, Rev. Thomas Stock collaborated closely with Raikes, organizing classes and contributing pedagogical innovations, yet Raikes received disproportionate acclaim, partly due to his journalistic promotion via the Gloucester Journal in 1783. Historians like Rosemary O'Day contend that the movement emerged organically from broader 18th-century philanthropic efforts rather than from any one individual, with Raikes's role amplified by his publicity rather than invention. By the , earlier precedents in places like —where multiple schools functioned decades prior—further undermine claims of Raikes as originator, attributing his legacy more to popularization amid industrial-era child welfare concerns.

References

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