Hubbry Logo
FoodFoodMain
Open search
Food
Community hub
Food
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Contribute something
Food
Food
Food
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Table set with red meat, bread, pasta, vegetables, fruit, fish, and beans
Display of various foods

Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or support growth. Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that satisfy the needs of their metabolisms and have evolved to fill specific ecological niches within specific geographical contexts.

Omnivorous humans are highly adaptable and have adapted to obtaining food in many different ecosystems. Humans generally use cooking to prepare food for consumption. The majority of the food energy required is supplied by the industrial food industry, which produces food through intensive agriculture and distributes it through complex food processing and food distribution systems. This system of conventional agriculture relies heavily on fossil fuels, which means that the food and agricultural systems are one of the major contributors to climate change, accounting for as much as 37% of total greenhouse gas emissions.[1]

The food system has a significant impact on a wide range of other social and political issues, including sustainability, biological diversity, economics, population growth, water supply, and food security. Food safety and security are monitored by international agencies, like the International Association for Food Protection, the World Resources Institute, the World Food Programme, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the International Food Information Council.

Definition and classification

[edit]

Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support and energy to an organism.[2][3] It can be raw, processed, or formulated and is consumed orally by animals for growth, health, or pleasure. Food is mainly composed of water, lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Other organic substances (e.g., vitamins) and minerals (e.g., salts) can also be found in food.[4] Plants, algae, and some microorganisms use photosynthesis to make some of their own nutrients.[5] Water is found in nearly all foods and has been defined as food by itself.[6] Water has no food energy, and fibers have low energy densities, or food energy relative to volume, some providing none, while fat is the most energy-dense component.[3] Some inorganic substances are also essential for plant and animal functioning.[7]

Human food can be classified in various ways, either by related content or by how it is processed.[8] The number and composition of food groups can vary. Most systems include four basic groups described by their origins and relative nutritional functions: vegetables and fruit, cereals and bread, dairy, and meat.[9] Studies that look into diet quality group food into whole grains, refined grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, eggs, dairy products, fish, red meat, processed meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages.[10][11][12] The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization use a system with eighteen or nineteen food classifications, including: cereals and their products; roots, tubers, plantains and their products; pulses, seeds and nuts and their products; milk and milk products; eggs and their products; fish, shellfish and their products; meat and meat products; insects, grubs and their products; vegetables and their products; fruits and their products; fats and oils; sweets and sugars; spices and condiments; beverages; foods for particular nutritional uses; food additives; composite dishes; and savory snacks. (The source claims nineteen but lists eighteen, numbered 1–15 and 17–19.)[13]

Food sources

[edit]
A typical aquatic food web

In a given ecosystem, food forms a web of interlocking chains with primary producers at the bottom and apex predators at the top.[14] Other aspects of the web include detrovores (that eat detritis) and decomposers (that break down dead organisms).[14] Primary producers include algae, plants, bacteria and protists that acquire their energy from sunlight.[15] Primary consumers are the herbivores that consume the plants, and secondary consumers are the carnivores that consume those herbivores. Some organisms, including most mammals and birds, have diets consisting of both animals and plants, and are considered omnivores.[16] The chain ends with the apex predators, the animals that have no known predators in its ecosystem.[17] Humans are considered apex predators.[18]

Humans are omnivores, finding sustenance in vegetables, fruits, cooked meat, milk, eggs, mushrooms and seaweed.[16] Cereal grain is a staple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop.[19] Corn (maize), wheat, and rice account for 87% of all grain production worldwide.[20][21][22] Just over half of the world's crops are used to feed humans (55 percent), with 36 percent grown as animal feed and 9 percent for biofuels.[23] Fungi and bacteria are also used in the preparation of fermented foods like bread, wine, cheese and yogurt.[24]

Photosynthesis

[edit]

During photosynthesis, energy from the sun is absorbed and used to transform water and carbon dioxide in the air or soil into oxygen and glucose. The oxygen is then released, and the glucose stored as an energy reserve.[25] Photosynthetic plants, algae and certain bacteria often represent the lowest point of the food chains,[26][27] making photosynthesis the primary source of energy and food for nearly all life on earth.[28]

Plants also absorb important nutrients and minerals from the air, natural waters, and soil.[29] Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are absorbed from the air or water and are the basic nutrients needed for plant survival.[30] The three main nutrients absorbed from the soil for plant growth are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, with other important nutrients including calcium, sulfur, magnesium, iron boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper molybdenum and nickel.[30]

Microorganisms

[edit]

Bacteria and other microorganisms also form the lower rungs of the food chain. They obtain their energy from photosynthesis or by breaking down dead organisms, waste or chemical compounds. Some form symbiotic relationships with other organisms to obtain their nutrients.[31] Bacteria provide a source of food for protozoa,[32] who in turn provide a source of food for other organisms such as small invertebrates.[33] Other organisms that feed on bacteria include nematodes, fan worms, shellfish and a species of snail.

In the marine environment, plankton (which includes bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa and microscopic fungi)[34] provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms.

Without bacteria, life would scarcely exist because bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nutritious ammonia. Ammonia is the precursor to proteins, nucleic acids, and most vitamins. Since the advent of the industrial process for nitrogen fixation, the Haber-Bosch Process, the majority of ammonia in the world is human-made.[35]

Plants

[edit]
Foods from plant sources

Plants as a food source are divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts.[36] Where plants fall within these categories can vary, with botanically described fruits such as the tomato, squash, pepper and eggplant or seeds like peas commonly considered vegetables.[37] Food is a fruit if the part eaten is derived from the reproductive tissue, so seeds, nuts and grains are technically fruit.[38][39] From a culinary perspective, fruits are generally considered the remains of botanically described fruits after grains, nuts, seeds and fruits used as vegetables are removed.[40][better source needed] Grains can be defined as seeds that humans eat or harvest, with cereal grains (oats, wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, sorghum and millet) belonging to the Poaceae (grass) family[41] and pulses coming from the Fabaceae (legume) family.[42] Whole grains are foods that contain all the elements of the original seed (bran, germ, and endosperm).[43] Nuts are dry fruits, distinguishable by their woody shell.[40][better source needed]

Fleshy fruits (distinguishable from dry fruits like grain, seeds and nuts) can be further classified as stone fruits (cherries and peaches), pome fruits (apples, pears), berries (blackberry, strawberry), citrus (oranges, lemon), melons (watermelon, cantaloupe), Mediterranean fruits (grapes, fig), tropical fruits (banana, pineapple).[40][better source needed] Vegetables refer to any other part of the plant that can be eaten, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, bark or the entire plant itself.[44] These include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), flowers (cauliflower and broccoli), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce) and stem vegetables (celery and asparagus).[45][44]

The carbohydrate, protein and lipid content of plants is highly variable. Carbohydrates are mainly in the form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars.[36] Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with the exception of vitamin D and vitamin B12. Minerals can also be plentiful or not. Fruit can consist of up to 90% water, contain high levels of simple sugars that contribute to their sweet taste, and have a high vitamin C content.[36][40][better source needed] Compared to fleshy fruit (excepting Bananas) vegetables are high in starch,[46] potassium, dietary fiber, folate and vitamins and low in fat and calories.[47] Grains are more starch based[36] and nuts have a high protein, fiber, vitamin E and B content.[40][better source needed] Seeds are a good source of food for animals because they are abundant and contain fiber and healthful fats, such as omega-3 fats.[48][49] Complicated chemical interactions can enhance or depress bioavailability of certain nutrients. Phytates can prevent the release of some sugars and vitamins.[36]

Animals that only eat plants are called herbivores, with those that mostly just eat fruits known as frugivores,[50] while leaf and shoot eaters are folivores (pandas) and wood eaters termed xylophages (termites).[51] Frugivores include a diverse range of species from annelids to elephants, chimpanzees and many birds.[52][53][54] About 182 fish consume seeds or fruit.[55] Animals (domesticated and wild) use as many types of grasses that have adapted to different locations as their main source of nutrients.[56]

Humans eat thousands of plant species; there may be as many as 75,000 edible species of angiosperms, of which perhaps 7,000 are often eaten.[57] Plants can be processed into breads, pasta, cereals, juices and jams or raw ingredients such as sugar, herbs, spices and oils can be extracted.[36] Oilseeds are pressed to produce rich oils – ⁣sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil) and sesame.[58]

Many plants and animals have coevolved in such a way that the fruit is a good source of nutrition for the animal, who then excretes the seeds some distance away, allowing greater dispersal.[59] Even seed predation can be mutually beneficial, as some seeds can survive the digestion process.[60][61] Insects are major eaters of seeds,[48] with ants being the only real seed dispersers.[62] Birds, although being major dispersers,[63] only rarely eat seeds as a source of food and can be identified by their thick beak that is used to crack open the seed coat.[64] Mammals eat a more diverse range of seeds, as they are able to crush harder and larger seeds with their teeth.[65]

Animals

[edit]
Various raw meats

Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly. This includes meat, eggs, shellfish and dairy products like milk and cheese.[66] They are an important source of protein and are considered complete proteins for human consumption as they contain all the essential amino acids that the human body needs.[67] One 4-ounce (110 g) steak, chicken breast or pork chop contains about 30 grams of protein. One large egg has 7 grams of protein. A 4-ounce (110 g) serving of cheese has about 15 grams of protein. And 1 cup (~240 mL) of milk has about 8 grams of protein.[67] Other nutrients found in animal products include calories, fat, essential vitamins (including B12) and minerals (including zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium).[67]

Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.). Eggs laid by birds and other animals are eaten and bees produce honey, a reduced nectar from flowers that is used as a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood, such as in blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare.[68]

Taste

[edit]
Main article: Taste

Animals, specifically humans, typically have five different types of taste sense: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. The differing tastes are important for distinguishing between foods that are nutritionally beneficial and those which may contain toxins.[69] As animals have evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy are the most pleasant to eat while others are not enjoyable,[70] although humans in particular can acquire a preference for some substances which are initially unenjoyable.[69] Water, while important for survival, has no taste.[71]

Sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar, such as glucose or fructose, or disaccharides, such as sucrose, a molecule combining glucose and fructose.[72] Sourness is caused by acids, such as vinegar. Sour foods include citrus, especially lemons and limes. Sour is evolutionarily significant as it can signal a food that may have gone rancid due to bacteria.[73] Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodium and potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions and enhances flavor. Bitter taste is a sensation considered unpleasant, caused by foods such as unsweetened dark chocolate, caffeine, lemon rind, and some types of fruit. Umami, commonly described as savory, is a marker of proteins and characteristic of broths and cooked meats.[74] Foods that have a strong umami flavor include cheese, meat and mushrooms.[75]

Catfish have millions of taste buds covering their entire bodies.

While most animals' taste buds are located in their mouths, some insects' taste receptors are located on their legs, and some fish have taste buds along their entire bodies.[76][77] Dogs, cats, and birds have relatively few taste buds (a chicken has about 30),[78], and an adult human has between 2000 and 4000,[79] while a catfish can have more than a million.[77] Herbivores generally have more than carnivores as they need to tell which plants may be poisonous.[78] Not all mammals share the same tastes: some rodents can taste starch, cats cannot taste sweetness, and several carnivores (including hyenas, dolphins, and sea lions) have lost the ability to sense up to four of the five taste modalities found in humans.[80]

Digestion

[edit]
Main article: Digestion

Food is broken into nutrient components through digestive processes.[81] Proper digestion consists of mechanical processes (chewing, peristalsis) and chemical processes (the actions of digestive enzymes and microorganisms).[82][83] The digestive systems of herbivores and carnivores are very different as plant matter is harder to digest. Carnivores' mouths are designed for tearing and biting compared to the grinding action found in herbivores.[84] Herbivores, however, have comparatively longer digestive tracts and larger stomachs to aid in digesting the cellulose in plants.[85][86]

Food safety

[edit]
Main article: Food safety

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 600 million people worldwide get sick, and 420,000 die each year, from eating contaminated food.[87][88] Diarrhea is the most common illness caused by consuming contaminated food, with about 550 million cases and 230,000 deaths from diarrhea each year. Children under five years of age account for 40% of the burden of foodborne illness, with 125,000 deaths each year.[88][89]

A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes.[90] According to the WHO and CDC, in the US alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.[91]

In Vietnam, from 2011 to 2016, on average, there were 668,673 cases of foodborne illness and 21 deaths each year.[92][93][94][95] In addition, during this period, 1,007 food poisoning outbreaks with 30,395 cases of food poisoning were reported.[88]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Food

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Food is any matter consumed by living organisms to supply the nutrients required for energy production, growth, tissue repair, and the maintenance of vital physiological processes. These nutrients encompass six primary classes: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water, which the body absorbs and metabolizes to support cellular functions and overall homeostasis. Primarily derived from plant and animal origins, food sources include fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes from plants, as well as meat, fish, dairy, and eggs from animals, each contributing distinct macronutrients and micronutrients essential for human nutrition. Inadequate intake or imbalanced composition of food leads to malnutrition, manifesting as undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, or overnutrition-related conditions like obesity, underscoring food's causal role in metabolic health and disease prevention through empirical links between dietary patterns and physiological outcomes. While cultural and economic factors influence food availability and preferences globally, the fundamental biological imperative remains the procurement of nutrient-dense matter to fuel basal metabolism and physical activity, with water often integral yet sometimes distinguished from caloric foods. Advances in food science have enhanced preservation, fortification, and safety, yet controversies persist over processing methods, genetic modification, and sustainability impacts on nutritional quality and environmental carrying capacity.

Definition and Fundamentals

Biological and Chemical Composition

Food derives its biological composition from the tissues, cells, and metabolic products of , animals, and microorganisms, which supply complex biomolecules essential for . These sources provide structural components like plant cell walls rich in —a polymer of glucose units—and animal muscle tissues containing myofibrillar proteins such as and . Microbially derived foods, such as fermented products, incorporate enzymes and from and fungi, altering substrate compositions during processing. Chemically, food consists predominantly of , which accounts for 50% to 96% of fresh weight depending on the source; for instance, cucumbers contain approximately 96% , while lean meats average 60-75%. serves as a , medium for reactions, and contributor to texture and volume in foods. The remaining comprises organic macronutrients—, , and —built from the elements carbon, , oxygen, , , and (collectively CHNOPS), which form over 99% of living matter's mass. , composed solely of C, H, and O in ratios approximating (CH₂O)ₙ, include monosaccharides like glucose, disaccharides such as , and like and , providing 4 kcal/g of . Proteins, polymers of linked by bonds, incorporate C, H, O, N, and sometimes S or P, yielding 4 kcal/g and serving as precursors for enzymes, hormones, and structural tissues; essential like must be dietary-derived since humans cannot synthesize them. , primarily triglycerides of fatty acids and , consist of C, H, O (with higher H:C ratios than carbs for at 9 kcal/g), including saturated chains like in animal fats and unsaturated ones like in oils. Micronutrients—vitamins (organic, e.g., as ascorbic acid with C, H, O) and minerals (inorganic, e.g., calcium ions)—are required in trace amounts but absent in demineralized or refined foods, with deficiencies arising from incomplete elemental profiles in processed items. Elemental analysis via combustion methods confirms food's organic matrix: typical dry biomass shows 40-50% carbon, 5-7% hydrogen, 40-45% oxygen, 1-10% , and minor sulfur or phosphorus, varying by source—e.g., higher nitrogen in protein-rich products versus carbon-heavy starches. -based foods emphasize carbohydrates (e.g., : ~80% carbs dry weight), sources prioritize proteins and s (e.g., : ~20% protein, 10-20% fat raw), and microbial contributions add bioactive compounds like exopolysaccharides. These compositions underpin digestibility, with resisting enzymatic breakdown due to β-linkages in hemicellulose, contrasting α-linkages in digestible starches.

Classification Systems

Food classification systems organize substances into categories based on criteria such as biological origin, nutritional composition, processing extent, or dietary utility, facilitating , , and guidance. These systems vary by purpose; for instance, biological classifications emphasize taxonomic sources, while nutritional ones prioritize macronutrient profiles. One foundational approach classifies foods by origin, distinguishing plant-derived items like grains and from animal products such as and , with additional categories for fungal, algal, or microbial sources. Plant foods encompass fruits, , , and cereals, providing carbohydrates, fibers, and vitamins, whereas animal foods supply proteins, fats, and bioavailable micronutrients like absent in . This dichotomy reflects evolutionary adaptations in human , where animal tissues offer dense energy and complete , contrasting with plant matter's structural requiring microbial for breakdown. Nutrient-based systems group foods by their primary chemical components, including macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, fats) and micronutrients (vitamins, minerals). Over 40 nutrients are recognized, categorized into seven groups: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, , and water, with foods like meats high in proteins and oils in fats. Such classifications underpin metabolic studies, as proteins from animal sources exhibit higher digestibility (90-100%) than many plant counterparts (70-90%), influencing metrics like PDCAAS. Dietary guidance systems, exemplified by U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) frameworks, evolved from early 20th-century models to promote balanced intake. The 1916 guide by Caroline Hunt divided foods into five groups: /meat, cereals, /fruits, fats/sugars, and desserts, emphasizing adequacy for children. By 1943, wartime needs prompted the "Basic Seven" groups, adding /fats and eggs to address gaps under . The 1956 "Basic Four" simplified to , s, fruits/, and breads/cereals, recommending 2-4 servings from produce daily. In 1992, the Food Guide Pyramid quantified servings (e.g., 6-11 grains, 2-3 ), peaking at base for carbohydrates. Replaced in 2011 by , it visually allocates half the plate to fruits/, a quarter to grains (preferring whole), and quarters to proteins/ dairy, reflecting evidence on and chronic disease risks from excess refined carbs. Processing-oriented systems, such as NOVA developed by Brazilian researchers in 2009, categorize foods into four groups by industrial transformation extent: (unprocessed/minimally processed, e.g., fresh fruits); (processed culinary ingredients, e.g., oils, ); (processed foods, e.g., canned with salt); and Group 4 (ultra-processed, e.g., sodas, packaged snacks with additives). NOVA links higher Group 4 consumption to adverse outcomes like , based on cohort studies showing ultra-processed foods comprise 58% of U.S. calories yet correlate with 10% higher mortality risk per 10% intake increase. Critics argue NOVA overlooks nutrient density, as some ultra-processed items (e.g., fortified cereals) provide essential vitamins, and its broad criteria conflate formulation with processing techniques. Ongoing efforts by groups like IAFNS seek refined, science-based processing classifications integrating composition and health impacts.
NOVA GroupDescriptionExamples
1: Unprocessed/Minimally ProcessedNatural foods with minimal alterations like cleaning or freezingFresh meats, fruits, , milk
2: Processed Culinary IngredientsSubstances extracted or refined for cookingOils, , , salt
3: Processed FoodsSimple combinations of groups 1/2 with added salt/sugar for preservationCheeses, , fruits in
4: Ultra-ProcessedFormulations with many ingredients, including additives, for Soft drinks, , packaged breads

Historical Development

Prehistoric Origins

Early hominins, dating back to at least 2.5 million years ago with species like Australopithecus and early Homo, subsisted primarily through scavenging and opportunistic hunting of small game, supplemented by gathering wild plants, fruits, and nuts, as evidenced by cut marks on animal bones from sites such as Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania indicating tool-assisted meat removal. Butchery marks on fossils from 2.6 million years ago further demonstrate systematic extraction of marrow and flesh, suggesting meat became a reliable energy source that supported brain enlargement in Homo erectus. These practices relied on stone tools like choppers and flakes for processing, with no evidence of domestication or storage, reflecting a nomadic lifestyle tied to seasonal resource availability. Plant-based formed the bulk of caloric intake in many environments, with archaeological finds from Pleistocene sites revealing consumption of tubers, , , and starchy ; for instance, dental wear patterns and starch residues on tools indicate grinding and processing of wild grains and tubers by early Homo sapiens around 100,000 years ago. Stable isotope analysis of bones from Moroccan sites dated 15,000 years ago shows diets richer in than previously assumed, challenging meat-dominant narratives and highlighting reliance on C3 like acorns and pistachios alongside game. groups adapted diets to local ecologies, incorporating , , and where available, with ethnographic parallels from modern foragers confirming that often provided 60-80% of energy in non-arctic settings. The control of fire, emerging around 1 million years ago but with confirmed cooking evidence by 780,000 years ago at in —via heated remains—marked a pivotal shift, enabling of tubers, increased bioavailability, and reduced jaw strain from raw foods, thus facilitating larger brains. Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens in Eurasian caves prepared multicomponent foods, such as starch-enriched patties or porridges, as shown by charred residues from 70,000-120,000 years ago, involving pounding, mixing with and fats, and possibly salting with for flavor. Scavenging carrion, including putrefied , supplemented , providing high-fat during scarcity and influencing social cooperation, per isotopic and tool from multiple Pleistocene sites. These methods persisted until the Neolithic transition around 12,000 years ago, underscoring food's role in driving physiological and cognitive through energy-dense, processed intakes.

Agricultural Revolution

The , marking the transition from societies to , commenced approximately 12,000 years ago in the of Southwest Asia following the end of the Pleistocene around 11,700 years ago. This shift involved the selective cultivation of wild and herding of animals, enabling food surpluses that supported permanent settlements. Archaeological evidence, including phytoliths and seed remains from sites like Choga Gholan in dated to 12,000 years , indicates early experimentation with management before full . Key domesticated plants in the included emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, , lentils, peas, chickpeas, and figs, with genetic and morphological changes in seeds evidencing human selection for non-shattering varieties by around 10,000 BCE. Animal domestication followed, beginning with sheep and herded in regions like modern between 13,000 and 10,000 years ago, as shown by bone morphology and dung deposits indicating managed herds. and pigs were domesticated subsequently, around 9,000–8,000 BCE, providing reliable sources of , , and labor, which fundamentally altered food procurement from opportunistic to systematic production. Agriculture developed independently in other regions, such as and millet in by 9,000 BCE and in around 7,000 BCE, but the innovations spread via migration and , influencing Eurasian diets with grain-based staples. This revolution enabled population densities to rise from sparse bands to villages housing hundreds, as surplus grains stored in silos reduced risks and freed labor for non-subsistence activities. However, the dietary shift narrowed food variety, relying heavily on cereals that comprised up to 80% of caloric in early farming communities, leading to evidence of nutritional deficiencies like iron and increased dental wear from abrasive grains, as skeletal analyses from Levantine sites reveal. Sedentary living also heightened exposure to zoonotic diseases from proximity and parasites in denser populations, though overall caloric availability supported demographic expansion. These changes laid the foundation for hierarchical societies and urban centers, where food production systems prioritized storable crops over diverse wild resources.

Industrialization and Modern Shifts

The industrialization of food production began in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, coinciding with broader mechanization during the , which introduced powered machinery, steam engines, and early factories to agriculture and processing. This shift enabled large-scale , first developed by French inventor in 1809, who sealed food in glass jars heated in boiling water to prevent spoilage, a method initially spurred by a French government prize for preserving army provisions. By 1810, British merchant patented tin-plated iron cans, facilitating durable, portable storage that extended shelf life without refrigeration and supported urban food distribution as populations migrated to cities. Further advancements in preservation included , patented by in 1865, which heated liquids like to kill pathogens while retaining , reducing spoilage rates in and beverages. Mechanical refrigeration emerged in the mid-19th century, with commercial ice-making machines by 1850s and practical vapor-compression systems by the 1870s, allowing year-round transport of perishables like and ; by 1913, the first domestic electric appeared, though industrial applications preceded this. These innovations, combined with steam-powered mills and threshers from the 1780s onward, boosted output: for instance, U.S. production rose from 80 million bushels in 1860 to 635 million by 1900, driven by mechanized harvesting. The accelerated these trends through the Second Agricultural Revolution's extensions, including chemical s and hybrid seeds, but the from the 1940s to 1970s marked a pivotal intensification, with high-yield varieties developed by in yielding up to three times more per acre under and use. Adopted widely in and , it increased global production by 250% between 1950 and 1984, averting famines in countries like where output doubled from 1967 to 1978. World agricultural output grew nearly fourfold from 1961 to 2020, primarily in developing regions, through expanded use of synthetic inputs and mechanized covering 20% more equivalents without proportional expansion. Modern shifts since the mid-20th century emphasize and processing, with in foodstuffs rising from 8% of production in 1960 to over 20% by 2020, enabling year-round availability via refrigerated shipping containers introduced in the . Ultra-processed foods, formulated with industrial additives for extended and , expanded post-1960s due to advances in and emulsification technologies; by 2019, they comprised 57% of U.S. caloric , correlating with higher consumption of sugars and fats but also reducing immediate in low-income areas through affordability. These developments, while enhancing efficiency and access, have intensified reliance on monocultures and supply chains vulnerable to disruptions, as seen in 2022 halts from amid conflict.

Primary Food Sources

Plant-Based Sources

Plant-based sources encompass edible parts of , including grains, s, , , roots, tubers, nuts, and seeds, which provide the bulk of global human caloric intake. Cereals such as , , and alone account for approximately 50% of the world's daily caloric consumption, with contributing 16%, 20%, and 13%. Fifteen plants supply 90% of global , underscoring the dominance of plant-derived staples in sustaining populations. Cereals represent the primary category, with global production reaching a record 2,836 million tonnes in 2023, driven by increases in output. These grains are milled into flours for , , and porridges, offering carbohydrates as the main energy source alongside moderate protein and . Legumes, including soybeans, beans, and lentils, contribute about 8% of caloric production through soybeans and provide higher-quality plant protein, fiber, and minerals like iron and , though often requiring processing to improve digestibility. Fruits and vegetables supply essential micronutrients, with fruits rich in vitamin C and antioxidants, and vegetables providing vitamins A and K, folate, and potassium; however, they contribute less to calories, focusing instead on nutritional density and fiber for digestive health. Roots and tubers, such as potatoes and cassava, serve as calorie-dense staples in regions like and , offering starch but limited protein. Nuts and seeds deliver healthy unsaturated fats, , and magnesium, though their high energy density limits bulk consumption. Plant oils extracted from seeds like soy, palm, and sunflower provide essential fatty acids, comprising a significant portion of dietary lipids globally.

Animal-Based Sources

Animal-based sources include foods derived directly from animals, such as meat, fish, dairy products, and eggs, which have served as primary protein providers in human diets for over three million years. These sources offer complete proteins containing all essential amino acids in bioavailable forms, along with micronutrients like vitamin B12, heme iron, and zinc that are scarce or absent in plant foods. Historically, animal products enabled brain expansion and physical development in hominins through dense caloric and nutrient delivery, contrasting with plant-heavy diets that require larger volumes for equivalent nutrition. Global production of animal-based foods reached significant scales by the early , with meat output estimated at 365 million tonnes in 2024, driven primarily by which accounted for the largest share following a 55% increase in total production from 2000 to 2022. , , and dominate terrestrial meat categories, sourced from , swine, and birds like chickens and turkeys, while sheep and contribute . production, including processed into cheese and butter, complements by providing fats and calcium, with eggs from offering versatile nutrient packets. Aquatic sources, encompassing and , added 223.2 million tonnes in 2022 through capture fisheries and , supplying omega-3 fatty acids and iodine alongside protein. These animal-derived foods maintain superiority in digestibility and nutrient absorption over plant alternatives; for instance, animal proteins yield higher ideal daily profiles, and replacing them with reduces and iodine status. While production scales reflect demand for their nutritional density, animal sources remain evolutionarily aligned with human , supporting growth and health without the deficiencies common in exclusive plant diets.

Microbial and Emerging Sources

Single-cell proteins (SCP), derived from microorganisms such as , yeasts, fungi, and , serve as a high-protein for human and animal consumption, typically containing 50-80% protein on a dry basis with profiles comparable to conventional sources. These proteins are produced via on substrates like or gases, offering potential advantages due to rapid growth rates and lower land requirements compared to traditional crops or . Mycoprotein, a filamentous fungal SCP from , exemplifies commercial microbial food, fermented in large-scale air-lift bioreactors using carbohydrates from and , yielding a product with approximately 45-50% protein, high (25%), and low (2-3%). It provides complete essential and has demonstrated health benefits in clinical trials, including improved glycemic control and , though rare allergic reactions to fungal necessitate processing to hydrolyze nucleic acids. Microalgae such as Spirulina platensis and contribute additional microbial sources, with protein contents of 50-70% and 50-60%, respectively, alongside , vitamins, and pigments like and . Cultivated in photobioreactors or open ponds, these algae are harvested, dried, and incorporated into supplements or foods, providing omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants, though varies and heavy metal contamination risks exist in non-controlled production. Emerging sources build on microbial platforms through precision fermentation, where genetically engineered yeasts or fungi produce animal-like proteins, such as or , using inexpensive feedstocks like sugars, enabling scalable output of dairy analogs without . By 2025, this technology supports ingredients for cheeses and fats, with companies achieving cost reductions via optimized strains, though regulatory hurdles persist for whole-food applications. Insect biomass, including crickets and mealworms, represents another emerging protein avenue, offering 40-77% crude protein and essential fatty acids, farmed on organic for lower environmental impact than . Regulatory approvals in regions like the and have enabled flours and bars by 2025, but consumer acceptance lags due to sensory issues and allergenicity akin to . Cultivated meat, grown from animal stem cells in bioreactors, remains nascent as of 2025, with advancements in media reducing costs but no widespread retail availability outside limited trials; scalability challenges and legislative bans in some U.S. states hinder progress. These sources collectively address protein demand amid , prioritizing empirical yields over unsubstantiated claims until lifecycle analyses confirm net benefits.

Nutritional Science

Essential Nutrients

Essential nutrients are substances required by the for normal growth, , and repair, which cannot be synthesized in adequate amounts internally and thus must be obtained through the diet. These include macronutrients needed in relatively large quantities—proteins, carbohydrates, and fats—along with , and micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals required in smaller amounts. The concept stems from physiological necessities: for instance, the body lacks the enzymatic pathways to produce certain , fatty acids, or vitamins de novo, leading to deficiencies without dietary intake. Proteins supply essential amino acids, of which nine—, , , , , , , , and —cannot be synthesized by human and must be consumed. These support tissue synthesis, production, and regulation; inadequate intake risks muscle wasting and impaired immunity, as observed in historical protein-energy cases. Carbohydrates provide glucose for function and , though the body can produce glucose via from non-carbohydrate sources, rendering them non-strictly essential but practically vital for efficient ATP production. Fats deliver essential fatty acids, specifically (an omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3), precursors to eicosanoids and membrane components absent in endogenous synthesis. Water, comprising about 60% of adult body mass, facilitates nutrient transport, , and metabolic reactions, with daily needs averaging 2.7 liters for women and 3.7 liters for men from all sources to prevent dehydration-related cognitive and renal impairments. Vitamins encompass 13 compounds indispensable for metabolic cofactors and antioxidants. Fat-soluble vitamins—A (retinol for vision), D (calciferol for calcium absorption), E ( as ), and K (phylloquinone for )—accumulate in tissues, risking toxicity from excess, while water-soluble ones— (B1), (B2), niacin (B3), (B5), (B6), (B7), (B9), cobalamin (B12), and ascorbic acid (C)—support energy , , and formation, with excesses excreted but deficiencies causing conditions like beriberi (B1) or (C). Minerals divide into major elements (calcium, , magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, ) for skeletal structure, nerve signaling, and acid-base balance, and trace elements ( for , for immunity, iodine for function, for enzymes, , , , ) required in microgram-to-milligram quantities to avert anemias or goiters. Empirical data from controlled depletion studies confirm these as irreplaceable, with bioavailability varying by food matrix—e.g., from absorbs better than non-heme forms.
CategoryExamplesKey FunctionsDietary Sources
Essential Amino Acids, , , , , , , , Protein synthesis, neurotransmitter precursors, eggs, , soy,
Essential Fatty Acids, Alpha-linolenic acidMembrane integrity, inflammation modulationVegetable oils, nuts, seeds,
Vitamins (Fat-Soluble)A, D, E, KVision, bone health, antioxidation, clottingLiver, sunlight-exposed skin, nuts, greens
Vitamins (Water-Soluble)B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12, C metabolism, formation, immune supportGrains, meats, fruits,
Major MineralsCalcium, , Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, formation, balance, , nuts, salts, meats
Trace MineralsIron, , Iodine, , , , etc.Oxygen transport, , thyroid hormone synthesis, , iodized salt, Brazil nuts
Deficiencies arise from inadequate intake or absorption issues, as evidenced by global surveys showing affecting 25% of the population, particularly women, underscoring the need for diverse diets over supplements alone for . While some nutrients like can be endogenously produced via UVB exposure, dietary sources remain critical in low-sunlight regions.

Human Digestion and Metabolism

Human digestion begins with ingestion in the , where mechanical breakdown occurs via mastication and chemical initiates through salivary , which hydrolyzes starches into . also lubricates food, forming a bolus for , while the propels it to the via . In the , gastric juice containing (pH 1.5-3.5) denatures proteins and activates pepsinogen to , which cleaves bonds in proteins, while lipids begin emulsification. The 's churning mixes contents into , released gradually into the . The , comprising , , and , is the primary site for enzymatic and nutrient absorption, spanning about 6 meters in length with a surface area enhanced by villi and microvilli to approximately 200 square meters. Pancreatic secretions, including to neutralize acid, for carbohydrates, for proteins, and for fats, along with from the liver emulsifying fats into micelles, facilitate breakdown: carbohydrates to monosaccharides, proteins to and peptides, and triglycerides to fatty acids and monoglycerides. Absorption occurs via (e.g., glucose via SGLT1 cotransporters) and passive , with nutrients entering enterocytes and then the or lymphatics for distribution. The absorbs water and electrolytes from indigestible residues, compacting them into feces, while ferment fibers into (SCFAs) like butyrate, providing up to 10% of daily energy in some diets. Hormones such as , , and cholecystokinin regulate these processes: stimulates acid secretion, prompts bicarbonate release, and CCK triggers gallbladder contraction and pancreatic output. Metabolism encompasses catabolic breakdown of absorbed nutrients for ATP production and anabolic synthesis of cellular components, primarily in the liver, muscles, and . Carbohydrates, yielding 4 kcal/g, are metabolized via to pyruvate, then to entering the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and for , generating up to 36 ATP per glucose molecule under aerobic conditions. Excess glucose forms or, via de novo lipogenesis, triglycerides for storage. Proteins, also 4 kcal/g, yield deaminated to carbon skeletons for or , with nitrogen excreted as ; essential cannot be synthesized and must be dietary. Fats, providing 9 kcal/g and the densest energy source, undergo beta-oxidation of fatty acids to for TCA entry, with glycerol convertible to glucose. from fat metabolism serve as alternative fuel during or low-carbohydrate states. Insulin, secreted by pancreatic beta cells in response to elevated blood glucose (typically >5.5 mmol/L), promotes via transporters, glycogenesis, and while inhibiting and . Conversely, from alpha cells, triggered by low glucose, stimulates , , and to raise blood glucose. Basal metabolic rate (BMR), accounting for 50-70% of daily energy expenditure in sedentary adults, represents calories burned at rest for vital functions like and organ maintenance, typically 1,200-1,800 kcal/day for women and 1,500-2,000 kcal/day for men depending on size. BMR is primarily determined by fat-free (each kg contributing ~20-25 kcal/day), with declines of 1-2% per after age 20 due to muscle loss, and influences from like thyroxine, though not sex or independently. and diet-induced (10-15% of expenditure) elevate total , underscoring lean preservation for energy efficiency.

Evidence-Based Health Impacts

Dietary patterns emphasizing nutrient-dense whole foods, such as , , whole grains, nuts, and , are associated with reduced all-cause mortality in large-scale prospective studies and meta-analyses. Conversely, higher intake of ultra-processed foods correlates with elevated risks of cardiometabolic diseases, including , , , , and cardiovascular events, as evidenced by multiple cohort studies and systematic reviews involving millions of participants. These associations persist after adjusting for confounders like and , though causation remains inferred from observational data supplemented by mechanistic on additives, emulsifiers, and rapid glycemic responses. Macronutrient composition influences outcomes, with moderate-certainty evidence from randomized controlled trials indicating that low-, Mediterranean, and low-fat diets yield modest and cardiovascular risk improvements over six months, without clear superiority among them. Excessive intake, particularly refined sources, contributes to and , while balanced protein from whole sources supports muscle maintenance and . Saturated fats from whole foods like and unprocessed show neutral or context-dependent effects on in recent reassessments, challenging prior restrictions based on early ecological data; meta-analyses of trials find no consistent harm when replacing with polyunsaturated fats yields minimal benefits. Comparisons of plant-based and omnivorous diets reveal short-term cardiometabolic advantages for vegan patterns in randomized trials, such as LDL cholesterol reductions in identical twins over eight weeks, but long-term observational data highlight risks of nutrient deficiencies leading to fractures, , and in strict vegans. Plant-forward omnivorous diets, incorporating moderate animal products, align with lower chronic disease rates in cohorts like EPIC-Oxford, balancing bioavailable nutrients like B12 and iron against potential excesses in processed meats. Overall, food matrix and processing level exert greater causal influence than strict categorization, with ultra-processed variants of either origin amplifying adverse outcomes via and .

Food Production and Processing

Agricultural and Aquacultural Methods

involves the systematic cultivation of and rearing of to produce food, originating with the of and animals around 10,000 BCE in regions like . Key developments include systems established between 4000 and 3000 BCE, which enabled surplus production, and later mechanization such as the in the 18th century with and . Modern methods emphasize high-yield techniques, including using sensors and data analytics to optimize inputs like and fertilizers, potentially increasing yields by up to 30%. Global agricultural output expanded nearly fourfold from 1961 to 2020, driven primarily by yield improvements in the Global South through hybrid seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and mechanized . Crop production relies on practices like , which alternates types to restore soil nutrients, suppress weeds, and break pest cycles; long-term studies demonstrate that diversified rotations enhance resilience and maintain compared to monocultures. For instance, including in rotations fixes atmospheric , reducing needs while boosting subsequent crop yields by 10-20% in evidence from field trials. techniques, such as and cover cropping, minimize erosion and carbon loss, with data showing they preserve and microbial diversity essential for long-term productivity. Intensive conventional systems, which integrate these with chemical inputs, achieve higher yields per than organic alternatives—often 20-50% greater—allowing reduced land conversion for , which occupies half of habitable globally. This efficiency counters environmental critiques, as high-yield approaches lower and habitat loss per unit of output compared to lower-yield methods requiring more . Livestock farming methods range from extensive on pastures, which utilizes marginal lands unsuitable for crops, to intensive confined systems like feedlots where animals are fed concentrated grains for rapid growth. Global meat production exceeded 350 million tonnes annually by the 2020s, with and pigs dominating intensive operations due to efficient feed conversion ratios—chickens require about 12 calories of input for 100 calories of output. These systems have scaled production to meet demand, with industrial growing at twice the rate of traditional since the mid-20th century, supported by veterinary advances and formulated feeds that reduce losses. However, intensive rearing concentrates emissions, though per-unit impacts decline with scale; accounts for 12-17% of global GHGs when attributing full effects. Aquaculture, the controlled farming of aquatic organisms such as , crustaceans, and mollusks, surpassed wild capture fisheries in , producing 130.9 million tonnes valued at $313 billion, comprising 51% of global output. Common methods include pond culture in freshwater for species like and , cage systems in marine environments for , and that combines fed species with extractive ones like to recycle nutrients and mitigate waste. Production has grown steadily, reaching 94.4 million tonnes of farmed aquatic animals in , driven by advances in feed efficiency and disease management, with accounting for over 90% of volume via high-density systems. These techniques enhance by providing protein-dense sources—farmed yields 15-20 grams of protein per 100 grams—while reducing pressure on overfished wild stocks, though challenges like escapes and use persist in poorly regulated operations. Overall, both agricultural and aquacultural intensification have enabled feeding 8 billion people, with yields prioritizing empirical over less efficient alternatives despite institutional preferences for lower-output models in biased narratives.

Processing and Preservation Techniques

Food processing encompasses a range of mechanical, thermal, and chemical methods applied to raw ingredients to convert them into consumable forms, such as milling grains into , homogenizing , or extruding for snacks, thereby improving digestibility, texture, and safety while potentially altering nutritional profiles. These techniques originated from basic transformations like grinding and , evolving with industrialization to include continuous processes like , which uses and shear to cook materials rapidly without excessive degradation in some cases. Processing reduces microbial risks and toxins but can diminish heat-labile vitamins, such as , through exposure to high temperatures in methods like or . Preservation techniques aim to inhibit microbial growth, enzymatic activity, and oxidation to extend , with ancient methods like solar drying dating back to 12,000 B.C. in Middle Eastern cultures by removing moisture to prevent spoilage. Traditional approaches include salting, , and , which create hostile environments for pathogens via osmotic stress, phenolic compounds, or acidification, respectively; for instance, curing meats with salt dates to at least 2000 B.C. and effectively controls like Clostridium botulinum through reduction below 0.85. , pioneered by in 1809 after Napoleon's 1795 reward for preservation innovations, involves sealing food in airtight containers and heating to sterilize, achieving commercial sterility by destroying spores at temperatures above 121°C for specified times. Modern thermal preservation, such as pasteurization—initially developed by Louis Pasteur in the 1860s for wine and applied to milk by the 1890s—applies targeted heat (e.g., 72°C for 15 seconds in high-temperature short-time milk pasteurization) to eliminate vegetative pathogens like Listeria and Salmonella while retaining more nutrients than prolonged boiling. Freezing, advanced commercially in the early 20th century, preserves nutrients effectively by slowing biochemical reactions at -18°C or below, with minimal loss of water-soluble vitamins compared to canning, though ice crystal formation can damage cellular structures in fruits and vegetables. Dehydration removes up to 95% of water content via air drying or freeze-drying, concentrating flavors but reducing vitamin levels, particularly thiamine, unless conducted at low temperatures. Non-thermal methods, including high-pressure processing (HPP) at 400-600 MPa and pulsed electric fields, inactivate microbes without heat, preserving heat-sensitive compounds like antioxidants and enzymes better than thermal equivalents; for example, HPP extends juice shelf life to 30-90 days while retaining 80-90% of vitamin C. Irradiation with gamma rays or electron beams (doses of 1-10 kGy) disrupts microbial DNA for pathogen reduction in spices and meats, approved by the FDA since 1963, with negligible nutritional impact at low doses but potential minor losses in lipids or proteins. Chemical preservatives like sodium benzoate inhibit molds in acidic foods at concentrations below 0.1%, but their use requires balancing efficacy against possible additive sensitivities. Overall, preservation efficacy depends on food matrix and target hazards, with combinations (hurdle technology) often optimizing safety and quality by synergistically applying multiple barriers like pH adjustment and packaging.

Quality Control and Safety Measures

Quality control in food production and processing encompasses systematic protocols to ensure products meet safety standards by mitigating biological, chemical, and physical hazards throughout the supply chain. The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system, developed in the 1960s for NASA and adopted industry-wide, forms the cornerstone of these efforts, emphasizing prevention over end-product testing. HACCP identifies potential hazards at each production stage, establishes critical control points (CCPs) such as pasteurization or refrigeration where controls are applied, sets critical limits for parameters like temperature, and mandates monitoring, corrective actions, verification procedures, and record-keeping. In the United States, the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) of 2011 mandates HACCP-like preventive controls for registered facilities, requiring hazard analysis and risk-based preventive measures for human and animal food. Globally, the Commission, jointly run by the (FAO) and (WHO), establishes voluntary standards, guidelines, and codes of practice for , including maximum residue limits for pesticides and contaminants, which serve as benchmarks for national regulations and international trade disputes under the . These frameworks prioritize empirical , such as microbial load testing and shelf-life validation, over prescriptive rules, allowing adaptation to specific operations like or . For instance, CCPs in might include time-temperature controls to prevent formation from bacterial growth in species like . Safety measures include rigorous sanitation protocols, such as cleaning schedules to eliminate cross-contamination from pathogens like or , verified through environmental swabbing and ATP bioluminescence testing for organic residues. Temperature monitoring at storage and transport stages prevents spoilage, with data loggers ensuring compliance to limits like below 4°C (39°F) for perishable goods to inhibit bacterial proliferation. Allergen control programs segregate production lines and label declaratively, addressing rising risks from undeclared traces. Traceability systems, often blockchain-enabled, enable rapid source identification during outbreaks, as seen in the 2018 E. coli recall affecting 210 cases across 36 states. Regulatory enforcement involves routine inspections: the U.S. (FDA) targets high-risk domestic facilities at least every three years under FSMA, focusing on preventive controls rather than reactive sampling, though a 2025 Government Accountability Office report noted delays in 40% of required inspections due to resource constraints. Third-party audits and supplier verification programs supplement government oversight, with empirical validation through surveys showing HACCP implementation reduced Salmonella in processing from 20% to under 10% in compliant U.S. plants between 1996 and 2010. Despite these advances, lapses persist; the WHO estimates 600 million annual foodborne illnesses globally, underscoring that human factors like inadequate training contribute to 70% of contamination events in empirical studies of processing facilities. Recall mechanisms, mandated by laws like the U.S. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, facilitate swift market withdrawal, but effectiveness hinges on integration rather than siloed compliance.

Culinary Preparation and Sensory Experience

Cooking and Preparation Methods

Cooking methods apply heat to food through conduction, , or , denaturing proteins, breaking down starches into simpler sugars for better digestibility, and initiating chemical reactions such as the , which produces flavorful compounds like pyrazines and furans at temperatures above 140°C (284°F). These processes reduce microbial risks by achieving internal temperatures that kill pathogens, such as Salmonella and E. coli, while potentially degrading heat-labile nutrients like . Methods are classified by heat medium: dry-heat (using air, fat, or direct flame), moist-heat (using or ), and combination approaches. Dry-heat methods rely on minimal moisture, promoting surface browning and but risking nutrient loss through oxidation or evaporation. and involve enclosing food in an where hot air circulates via , typically at 160–220°C (320–430°F), suitable for meats and ; for instance, roasts require a minimum internal temperature of 63°C (145°F) with a 3-minute rest to ensure . and broiling use radiant heat from above or below, often exceeding 200°C (390°F), which enhances flavor via Maillard but can form heterocyclic amines in charred meats, compounds linked to mutagenicity in . and pan-frying employ conduction through a thin fat layer at 160–190°C (320–375°F), preserving moisture in quick-cooked items like , though prolonged high heat generates in starchy foods, a probable per International Agency for Research on Cancer classifications. Moist-heat methods transfer heat via liquid or vapor, tenderizing collagen in tough cuts through hydrolysis but often leaching water-soluble vitamins; boiling at 100°C (212°F) can retain only 0–74% of vitamin C in vegetables, with losses exacerbated by prolonged exposure. Steaming, using indirect vapor at similar temperatures, minimizes leaching and better preserves antioxidants like glucosinolates in broccoli compared to boiling. Poaching and simmering below boiling point (70–95°C or 160–200°F) suit delicate proteins like fish or eggs, achieving safety at 63°C (145°F) for finfish while avoiding protein coagulation that toughens texture. Combination methods like and stewing begin with dry for flavor development, then add liquid for slow cooking at 80–100°C (175–212°F) over hours, converting to for tenderness in cuts like ; this hybrid preserves more nutrients than pure by limiting initial water contact. Modern techniques, such as sous-vide (vacuum-sealed immersion in precise water baths at 50–60°C or 120–140°F for extended times) and microwaving ( via water molecule agitation), offer controlled outcomes: sous-vide ensures uniform kill at lower temperatures, like 60°C (140°F) for hours equating to instant lethality at higher heats, while microwaving retains up to 90% of vitamins in short bursts but risks uneven heating if not stirred. Overall, nutrient retention favors minimal-water, shorter-duration methods like or microwaving over , though of in tomatoes increases with any heat application. Safety demands verifying internal temperatures, as surface browning does not guarantee inactivation.

Sensory Properties

The sensory properties of food refer to the attributes perceived through senses, including appearance, aroma, , texture, and , which collectively shape flavor perception and consumer preferences. These properties arise from physical and chemical characteristics of food components, such as pigments for color, volatile compounds for , and structural elements for texture, and their evaluation forms the basis of in . occurs in the , where inputs from multiple senses interact to modulate overall enjoyment; for instance, visual cues can alter perceived flavor intensity before tasting begins. Appearance, primarily governed by color, shape, and size, serves as the initial , influencing expectations of , freshness, and quality. Food color, derived from natural pigments like in or in fruits, signals ripeness or spoilage; for example, green hues in unripe bananas or brown spots on apples indicate enzymatic browning via activity. Hue and saturation affect flavor anticipation—red colors often enhance in drinks, while unnatural colors can reduce acceptance by mismatching expected tastes. Studies show that altering color independently of composition changes perceived flavor; participants rated cherry-flavored drinks as fruitier when redder, demonstrating color's role in setting multisensory expectations. Aroma, detected via olfactory receptors in the nose, arises from volatile organic compounds released during food preparation or mastication, contributing up to 80-90% of flavor perception in retronasal olfaction. Essential oils in like () or spices like () exemplify how specific volatiles evoke distinct scents, with intensity modulated by temperature—hot foods release more volatiles than cold ones. Aroma interacts with ; individuals with report diminished flavor complexity, detecting only basic gustatory qualities like or bitterness. Taste, mediated by on the detecting five basic modalities—sweet (sucrose-responsive receptors), sour (acid protons), salty (sodium ions), bitter (aversive alkaloids), and (glutamate)—provides fundamental chemical signals but integrates with aroma for full flavor. Thresholds vary; for salt, detection occurs at approximately 0.01 M NaCl, while bitterness sensitivity protects against toxins. Flavor emerges from taste-aroma , as isolated taste lacks the nuance of, say, coffee's roast notes from over 800 volatiles. Texture, encompassing mouthfeel, viscosity, and particle size, is perceived through somatosensory receptors in the mouth, affecting satiety and pleasure; crisp vegetables like carrots provide cellular turgor resistance, while creamy textures in yogurt result from protein-fat emulsions. Variations influence intake—smoother textures increase consumption rates compared to granular ones, per empirical studies on eating behaviors. Texture modifies other senses; harder foods amplify perceived freshness via mechanical feedback. Sound contributes subtly, primarily through mastication acoustics; the crunch of potato chips, generated by fracture at frequencies around 1000-4000 Hz, enhances crispness and freshness perceptions, with louder sounds correlating to higher quality ratings in blind tests. Auditory cues integrate multisensorially; softer backgrounds can soften perceived food texture, altering overall pleasantness. These properties' interplay underscores causal realism in food enjoyment: empirical data from sensory panels confirm that disrupting one, like muting crunch, diminishes holistic appeal.

Cultural and Regional Cuisines

Regional cuisines develop through adaptations to local , , and historical interactions, including routes, migrations, and colonizations that introduce new ingredients and techniques. Geographical proximity more strongly influences culinary similarities than climatic factors alone, as seen in China's diverse regional styles shaped by and access rather than uniform patterns. Staple foods reflect environmental suitability: thrives in flooded Asian paddies, enabling and soy-based dishes prevalent in East Asian cooking, while wheat-based s dominate European diets in drier, temperate areas. In African cuisines, staples vary by subregion but commonly include tubers like and yams in West and Central areas, alongside grains such as , millet, and in Eastern and Southern zones, often prepared as porridges or stews complemented by and wild greens. These reflect adaptations to tropical climates and landscapes, with historical transatlantic exchanges introducing crops like from the post-1492, which became integral to dishes like in . European cuisines emphasize , meats, and baked goods; French techniques prioritize fresh ingredients and precise methods, influencing global standards since the 17th century through royal courts and culinary codification by figures like . In the , indigenous staples like , beans, and chili peppers form the "Three Sisters" triad in Mesoamerican traditions, blended with European introductions during to yield hybrid styles such as or Southern U.S. fare featuring , , and . Trade and migration further diversify cuisines; the facilitated spice integration in Asian and Middle Eastern cooking, while African influences via the slave trade contributed okra, yams, and plantains to and Latin American repertoires. Latino foods exemplify this fusion, combining indigenous with European and African starchy roots in dishes like tamales or . Modern global exchanges continue this evolution, though core regional identities persist tied to pre-industrial resource bases.

Global Food Systems

Economic Aspects

The global food market, encompassing production, , distribution, and consumption of products, generated revenue of US$9.37 trillion in 2025, with projections for annual growth of 6.34% through 2030 driven by increases and dietary shifts. , , and collectively contributed 4.31% to worldwide (GDP) in 2021, a figure that has remained stable around 4% since 2012 despite fluctuations from commodity cycles and technological advances. In developed economies like the , the broader , food, and related industries accounted for 5.5% of GDP and 10.4% of employment in 2024, highlighting the sector's multiplier effects through supply chains and retail. International trade in food and agricultural products expanded to US$1.9 trillion in 2022, a fivefold increase since 2000, reflecting nutritional transitions toward processed and animal-based foods alongside specialization in staples. Key commodities dominating this trade include , corn, soybeans, and , which together underpin global calorie supply and feedstocks for and biofuels; for instance, soybeans and corn lead U.S. exports, valued at billions annually due to demand from and . U.S. agricultural exports alone reached $176 billion in 2024, up 1% from 2023, with grains, oilseeds, and meats comprising the bulk despite import surpluses in processed goods. Food prices exhibit significant volatility, primarily from supply-side shocks such as adverse weather, pests, geopolitical conflicts like the Russia-Ukraine war disrupting exports, and input cost fluctuations including and fertilizers. Demand pressures from biofuels, , and in futures markets amplify these swings, as evidenced by the 2007-2008 spikes where corn, , , and prices tripled before correcting. Such volatility erodes producer incomes during downturns and inflates consumer costs during upswings, disproportionately harming low-income households by reducing food quantity and quality purchased, thereby exacerbating and in import-dependent regions. Government subsidies distort these markets by insulating producers from price signals, with total support to agriculture across 54 OECD-monitored economies averaging $842 billion annually from 2021 to 2023, including $628 billion in direct payments to farmers that often favor large operations and encourage overproduction of staples like grains over diversified crops. These interventions, equivalent to 0.3-0.7% of GDP in major economies over the past decade, can suppress global prices artificially but heighten vulnerability to shocks by misallocating resources away from resilience-building innovations like precision farming. Trade policies, including tariffs and export bans during crises, further compound inefficiencies, as seen in rice restrictions that spiked prices in 2008. Empirical analyses indicate that reforming subsidies toward research and infrastructure could enhance long-term productivity without the trade distortions evident in current systems.

Distribution and Supply Chains

Food distribution encompasses the movement of products from production sites, such as farms and processing facilities, to wholesalers, retailers, and ultimately consumers, forming a critical link in global supply chains valued at approximately $9.14 trillion as of 2024. These chains rely on interconnected networks that integrate storage, transportation, and to minimize spoilage and ensure availability, with over 90% of the world's more than 608 million farms—primarily family-operated—contributing to the initial supply stages. In high-income countries, distribution often spans vast distances, enabling year-round access to seasonal or regional items, though this extends vulnerability to external shocks compared to localized systems. Primary transportation modes for food include trucking, which dominates due to flexibility for perishable goods, accounting for the majority of refrigerated freight in networks like the U.S., where core counties handle concentrated flows while peripheral areas face limitations. Rail and waterway transport support bulk commodities, such as grains and oils, across continental U.S. networks, while air freight constitutes only 0.16% of global , reserved for high-value perishables due to cost and emissions intensity. The food sector, encompassing these modes, reached $122.9 billion in value in 2023 and is projected to grow to $238 billion by 2032 at a exceeding 7.8%, driven by demand for efficient handling of diverse product types. Cold chain logistics, involving temperature-controlled storage and transport, is essential for preserving quality in perishables like dairy, meat, and produce, preventing microbial growth and extending shelf life from origin to destination. Systems monitor temperatures via sensors during trucking and warehousing, reducing losses that could otherwise reach significant levels without intervention, though gaps in developing regions exacerbate spoilage. In the U.S., for instance, perishable food flows highlight reliance on refrigerated trucks to bridge urban-rural divides. Supply chains face frequent disruptions from climatic events, infrastructure failures, and geopolitical tensions, as seen in the , which caused labor shortages at processing plants and abrupt cancellations from food-service sectors, leading to excess inventory and price volatility. More recently, Red Sea shipping interruptions since late 2023 have delayed imports of spices, , and , slowing production of processed foods in and inflating costs. Such events, including biological outbreaks and bottlenecks, contribute to food waste estimated at 30-40% of the U.S. supply, with distribution stages accounting for portions through inefficiencies like overstocking or transit delays. Globally, post-harvest and distribution losses amplify insecurity, underscoring the need for resilient over optimistic assumptions of seamless .

Food Security and Malnutrition

Food security refers to the condition where all individuals have consistent physical, economic, and social access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and preferences for an active, healthy life, as defined by the of the (FAO). encompasses undernutrition (insufficient calories or nutrients leading to hunger, wasting, and stunting), micronutrient deficiencies (such as lacks in iron, , or iodine), and overnutrition (excess calorie intake resulting in and conditions). These issues persist globally despite agricultural productivity gains, primarily due to disruptions in access rather than absolute food shortages, with production exceeding demand in aggregate but unevenly distributed. In 2023, approximately 733 million people—equivalent to one in eleven globally and one in five in —faced , marking the third consecutive year of stagnation after rises from 613 million in 2019, driven by the , economic shocks, and conflicts. Undernourishment affected about 9% of the world's population, with levels comparable to 2008-2009, reversing prior declines toward Goal targets. Among children under five, stunting (chronic undernutrition impairing growth) affected 149 million in 2022, with progress halting amid rising acute cases; (severe acute malnutrition) impacted 45 million, heightening mortality risks. Conversely, overnutrition has surged, with 2.5 billion adults in 2022 (including 890 million ) and 35 million children under five in 2024, reflecting a "double burden" where undernutrition coexists with in low-income settings due to cheap, calorie-dense processed foods displacing nutrient-rich options. Primary causes of food insecurity include armed conflicts, which displace populations and destroy infrastructure, as seen in (where the 2022 invasion spiked global grain prices) and (where insurgencies in and the affected 20 million in acute need in 2024); economic factors like and , limiting affordability for 2.3 billion unable to access healthy diets; and climate extremes such as floods and droughts exacerbating yields in vulnerable regions. Conflicts alone drove 65% of acute food crises in 2024 per the Global Report on Food Crises, outpacing climate impacts, while poor governance and trade barriers compound access failures despite sufficient global calorie availability (around 2,800 kcal per capita daily). deficiencies affect 2 billion people, often from monotonous diets lacking diversity, with prevalent in 40% of pregnant women in developing countries. Regionally, bears the heaviest undernutrition burden, with 20.4% prevalence versus 2.4% in , though hosts the largest absolute numbers due to population size; faces rising alongside pockets of undernutrition. Interventions like programs have reduced deficiencies (e.g., iodine in salt averting 10-15 IQ points loss per ), but scalability is hindered by conflict zones restricting delivery, as in where 17 million faced insecurity in 2023. Long-term solutions emphasize boosting local production via resilient crops and , yet progress toward zero by 2030 remains off-track, with undernourishment projected to persist absent policy shifts addressing root disruptions over dependency.

Environmental Impacts

Resource Consumption

Agriculture, the primary driver of food production, accounts for approximately 50% of the world's habitable land, encompassing both cropland and pastures used for grazing and feed production. This totals around 48 million square kilometers, with about 77% dedicated to animal agriculture despite it providing only 18% of global calories and 37% of protein. Such allocation reflects the lower caloric of livestock systems, where vast areas are required for forage and feed crops compared to direct human-edible cultivation. Global freshwater withdrawals for constitute roughly 70%, or about 2,800 cubic kilometers annually, predominantly for of crops and . This share varies by , reaching 90% in low-income countries reliant on rain-fed and irrigated systems, while inefficiencies like leaky waste up to 60% of applied water. Animal products exhibit particularly high water footprints; for instance, requires around 15,000 liters per kilogram compared to 300 liters for cereals, driven by in feed production and animal . Food systems consume about 30% of total global , spanning on-farm operations, , , and retail, with fossil fuels dominating inputs like machinery, , and . On-farm activities alone account for a significant portion, including diesel for and pumping, while production—via the energy-intensive Haber-Bosch process—requires roughly 1-2% of global . In 2023, application reached 112 million tonnes, 41 million tonnes, enabling yield increases but contributing to energy demands that have risen with intensified farming since the mid-20th century. Resource intensities vary by food type, underscoring causal trade-offs in production efficiency: plant-based staples like grains demand fewer inputs per than ruminant meats, which convert only 3% of feed energy into human-edible output due to thermodynamic losses in and growth. Projections indicate that meeting 2050 food —requiring 50% more —will strain resources unless efficiencies improve, as current systems already exceed sustainable limits in phosphorus and arable expansion. Empirical from FAO assessments confirm sufficient reserves exist short-term, but depletion risks and environmental externalities necessitate targeted reductions in and shifts toward higher-yield practices.

Climate and Biodiversity Effects

Agrifood systems, encompassing production, processing, distribution, and consumption, contribute approximately one-third of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, equivalent to around 18 billion tonnes of CO2-equivalent annually as of recent estimates. This includes direct emissions from agricultural activities such as in , rice cultivation, and , which account for about 10-12% of total global emissions, alongside indirect contributions from land-use changes like and post-production stages. Enteric from , primarily , represents a key component, comprising roughly 32% of anthropogenic worldwide, with responsible for 75% of global enteric due to their and digestive . Revised FAO assessments place supply chains at 12% of total global GHG emissions, lower than prior figures, emphasizing that mitigation strategies like improved feed efficiency can reduce these without necessitating production cuts. Food loss and waste exacerbate emissions, generating 8-10% of annual global GHGs through decomposition in landfills and inefficient resource use upstream. Agriculture also drives nitrous oxide emissions from fertilizer application and manure management, which have risen alongside intensified cropping, though global agricultural GHG totals slightly declined from 11.50 GtCO2eq in earlier years to 10.89 GtCO2eq recently due to productivity gains in some regions. On biodiversity, agricultural expansion remains the dominant driver of habitat loss and decline, identified as a to 24,000 of approximately 28,000 assessed globally. Land conversion for crops and pastures fragments , reduces in wild populations, and promotes through practices, with in food systems amplifying these effects via ecosystem conversion. rates, largely attributable to (at least 75% of cases), have slowed to 10.9 million hectares per year during 2015-2025 from 17.6 million in 1990-2000, yet continue to erode hotspots, particularly in tropical regions where soy, , and cattle ranching predominate. Associated heightens agricultural vulnerability to pests, diseases, and variability by diminishing natural , , and services.

Sustainability Debates

Sustainability debates in food production center on the trade-offs between , emissions, , and impacts, with conflicting empirical assessments of animal versus plant-based systems and conventional versus alternative farming practices. Livestock supply chains have been estimated to contribute 14.5% of anthropogenic , primarily from and , according to a 2013 (FAO) report that included full lifecycle emissions. However, critics argue this figure overstates direct attribution by incorporating indirect factors like for feed crops and respiratory CO2, which some analyses exclude as biogenic or non-additive to cycles; a subsequent FAO assessment revised the estimate downward to approximately 12% by refining methodologies. Plant-based alternatives are often claimed to reduce emissions, water, and by factors of 2-10 times compared to or , based on lifecycle analyses, though these overlook nutritional density differences and the potential for on marginal lands unsuitable for crops. Land use efficiency remains a core contention, as animal agriculture occupies about 77% of global agricultural land yet provides only 18% of calories, prompting calls for dietary shifts to spare habitats. Counterarguments highlight that intensification of crop farming has already reduced net land expansion, and grass-fed systems can utilize non-arable pastures without competing for cropland, potentially preserving biodiversity in diverse ecosystems. Organic and regenerative practices, advocated for soil health and reduced chemical inputs, face scrutiny for yielding 18-80% less per hectare than conventional methods, necessitating 20-70% more land to match output and risking greater habitat conversion in a growing population context. Evidence from long-term trials indicates regenerative approaches may enhance soil carbon sequestration by 0.4-1.2 tons per hectare annually in some contexts, but scalability is limited by variable profitability—78% higher in select cases despite 29% yield drops—and inconsistent biodiversity gains amid monoculture prevalence. Biodiversity metrics underscore further divisions, with food systems implicated in 70-80% of terrestrial habitat loss through land conversion and nutrient runoff, yet debates persist on whether extensification (e.g., low-input organics) or precision conventional farming better mitigates this. Conventional high-yield systems have historically spared land by increasing output per unit area, averting an estimated additional 7.5 million square kilometers of conversion since 1961, though at costs to soil microbes and pollinators from pesticides. Regenerative proponents cite potential for agroecological diversity via cover crops and rotations, but meta-analyses reveal no universal superiority, with outcomes dependent on local soils and climates; for instance, UK farm studies show mixed socio-economic benefits without guaranteed emission reductions. These tensions reflect broader causal realities: while plant-centric or low-meat diets may lower per capita footprints in high-consumption regions, global sustainability hinges on technological mitigation—like methane inhibitors reducing livestock emissions by up to 30%—rather than uniform de-intensification, given yield gaps' implications for food security in developing nations. Academic sources advancing anti-livestock narratives often derive from institutions with environmental advocacy ties, potentially underweighting adaptation potentials in integrated systems.

Health, Safety, and Regulation

Health Risks from Contaminants

Food contaminants encompass chemical substances such as , residues, mycotoxins, and processing byproducts like , which can enter the food supply through environmental , agricultural practices, industrial processing, or natural fungal growth. These contaminants pose health risks primarily through chronic low-level exposure, with effects including carcinogenicity, , and organ damage, though regulatory limits aim to minimize population-level harm. Vulnerable groups, such as infants and young children, face heightened risks due to greater relative intake and developmental sensitivity. Heavy metals like lead, mercury, , and accumulate in foods such as , , leafy greens, and rice-based infant products via , , and . Lead exposure impairs development and lowers IQ in children, while also contributing to and cancer in adults. Mercury, prevalent in large , causes neurological deficits including tremors, memory loss, and developmental delays in fetuses. , found in and grains, damages kidneys and bones, with chronic exposure classified as a linked to . in and is associated with lesions, , and increased and risk. The U.S. FDA's "Closer to Zero" initiative targets reductions in these metals in baby foods, recognizing no safe level for neurotoxicants like lead. Pesticide residues persist on , , and grains despite washing and regulations, with maximum residue limits (MRLs) set by bodies like to prevent . Chronic dietary exposure shows mixed epidemiological evidence for cancer risk; a 2021 study of and intake found no overall association with cancer incidence, though specific pesticides like face debate over . Long-term effects may include endocrine disruption and reproductive harm, but levels in monitored foods typically fall below thresholds deemed safe by risk assessments, with acute poisoning rare outside occupational settings. Mycotoxins, fungal metabolites like aflatoxins produced in stored grains, nuts, and spices under warm, humid conditions, are potent hepatotoxins and Group 1 carcinogens per the International Agency for Research on Cancer. exposure synergizes with , elevating risk up to 30-fold, contributing to an estimated 25,000–155,000 annual global deaths. Over 4 billion people face dietary exposure, predominantly in developing regions with poor storage, leading to acute outbreaks like the 2004 Kenyan incident affecting 125 deaths from contaminated . Regulatory monitoring and improved agriculture reduce risks, but contamination persists in commodities like and corn. Processing contaminants such as form in starchy foods like fries, chips, and coffee during high-temperature cooking via . Animal studies demonstrate carcinogenicity at high doses, prompting the (EFSA) in 2015 to conclude potential cancer risk for all age groups from dietary exposure, though human epidemiological data remain inconsistent and non-confirmatory. Mitigation strategies include cooking at lower temperatures or using enzymes, with average adult intake around 0.4–1.9 μg/kg body weight daily in , below benchmark doses for tumors in but warranting ongoing surveillance.

Regulatory Standards

The Codex Alimentarius Commission, jointly established by the and in 1963, develops international food standards, guidelines, and codes of practice to protect consumer health and facilitate practices. These include maximum residue limits for pesticides, standards for contaminants like , and specifications for food additives via the General Standard for Food Additives (GSFA). Codex standards serve as a benchmark under the World Trade Organization's Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement, where WTO members must base import restrictions on or recognized international standards to avoid unjustified trade barriers. Safety evaluations for additives and contaminants rely on assessments by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), which establishes acceptable daily intakes based on toxicological data from animal studies and human . In the United States, the (FDA) oversees safety for approximately 80% of the food supply, excluding and regulated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and the Modernization Act (FSMA) of 2011. FSMA mandates preventive controls, such as and Critical Control Points (HACCP) systems, to identify and mitigate biological, chemical, and physical hazards throughout the , shifting from reactive outbreak response to proactive . The FDA Food Code, updated biennially with the 2022 edition providing model regulations for retail and food service operations, emphasizes sanitation, temperature controls, and allergen management to reduce risks, adopted variably by states. Food additives require pre-market approval as "" (GRAS) or through petitions demonstrating no harm at intended use levels, with over 10,000 substances evaluated since 1958. The enforces stringent standards through the General Food Law Regulation (EC) No 178/2002, which establishes , , and the "" for uncertainties, overseen by the (EFSA). EFSA conducts independent s for novel foods, additives, and genetically modified organisms, informing bans or restrictions not always aligned with U.S. approvals, such as certain artificial colors linked to hyperactivity in children per 2007 study data. Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 authorizes additives only if safety is proven at proposed levels, with mandatory E-number labeling and prohibitions on over 1,300 substances compared to fewer in the U.S., reflecting lower tolerance for potential long-term risks. Labeling follows guidelines but includes mandatory declarations (14 specified substances) and, in some member states, origin labeling for meats since 2010, with front-of-pack nutrition schemes like adopted voluntarily in several countries by 2024. Global variations in standards arise from differing scientific interpretations and economic priorities; for instance, the EU's stricter additive limits stem from cumulative exposure models, while U.S. regulations prioritize substantial evidence of harm before restriction, leading to trade disputes resolved via or WTO panels. Emerging standards address novel risks, such as and in animal feeds, with FAO/WHO initiatives promoting harmonization for developing nations where weak enforcement contributes to 600 million annual foodborne illnesses per WHO estimates.

Public Health Interventions

Public health interventions targeting food and nutrition seek to mitigate deficiencies, excess calorie intake, and diet-related diseases through evidence-based policies and programs, often prioritizing cost-effective measures with demonstrated population-level impacts. These include mandatory of staple foods with micronutrients, regulatory bans on harmful additives, fiscal measures like taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), and structured feeding programs in institutions such as schools. Success varies by intervention type, with and additive restrictions showing stronger causal links to improvements compared to behavioral nudges or taxes, which often yield modest or context-dependent effects. Food fortification programs, involving the addition of vitamins and minerals to widely consumed products like , salt, and oils, have proven effective in reducing deficiencies globally. For instance, iodization of salt since the 1920s in the United States eliminated endemic goiter, while folic acid of products implemented in 1998 reduced defects by 20-50% in . Iron of in countries like and has decreased prevalence by up to 20%, and in and has improved status indicators. Large-scale mandatory programs achieve high coverage, with a 2023 analysis showing they avert deficiencies in billions when reach exceeds 80% of the population, though challenges persist in monitoring and over- risks. Regulatory prohibitions on deleterious food components, such as artificial s, have yielded clear cardiovascular benefits. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration's 2015 ban on partially hydrogenated oils, following earlier local restrictions like New York City's 2006 ordinance, correlated with a decline in heart disease mortality; synthetic control studies estimate Denmark's 2003 ban reduced cardiovascular deaths by 10-15%. Areas with trans fat restrictions experienced 6-10% fewer hospitalizations for and within three years post-implementation. The FDA projects the national ban will prevent 20,000 heart attacks and 7,000 coronary deaths annually by eliminating trans fats, which elevate LDL cholesterol and without nutritional value. Similar outcomes are anticipated from the World Health Organization's global push for elimination by 2023, potentially averting 66% of trans fat-attributable deaths in covered populations. Fiscal policies, including SSB taxes, aim to curb obesity by raising prices and altering consumption patterns, though evidence indicates limited direct impact on body weight. Mexico's 2014 10% excise tax reduced SSB purchases by 10% in the first year, sustaining a 7-9% drop thereafter, with modeling suggesting a 1.3% decline in overweight/obesity prevalence among adults. Systematic reviews confirm price elasticity leads to 10-30% consumption reductions per 10% tax hike, but population-level obesity rates show minimal change, often under 1% BMI reduction, due to substitution effects and industry reformulations. Critics note that while taxes generate revenue for health programs, their regressive nature disproportionately affects lower-income groups without addressing root causes like ultra-processed food availability. School meal programs, providing subsidized or universal access to nutrient standards-compliant lunches, enhance dietary quality and address food insecurity, particularly among children. In the U.S., the National School Lunch Program serves over 30 million students daily, associating with higher intakes of fruits, , and whole grains, alongside a 10-20% lower risk in participants versus non-participants. free meal policies, as in expanded implementations post-2010 Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act, correlate with improved academic performance and reduced caloric overconsumption from sodas and fats. Studies from and show daily consumption boosts nutrient density by 15-25%, though long-term prevention requires complementary education and . Economic analyses project that stricter standards on sodium and sugars could avert thousands of diet-related illnesses, yielding net societal savings.

Controversies and Debates

Critiques of Dietary Guidelines

Dietary guidelines issued by bodies such as the (USDA) and the (WHO) have faced substantial criticism for relying predominantly on observational rather than randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that establish . The 1980 and 1985 USDA guidelines recommended reducing all fats, with the 1990 iteration specifying less than 30% of calories from fat, despite subsequent systematic reviews concluding that rigorous clinical trial evidence did not support low-fat diets for preventing chronic diseases. Critics argue this evidentiary weakness stems from foundational studies, such as ' selective data in the Seven Countries Study, which emphasized correlations between and heart disease while overlooking contradictory data from non-selected populations. The promotion of low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets under these guidelines has been linked to the parallel rise in and metabolic disorders, with U.S. intake increasing as consumption declined following the 1977 Dietary Goals for the . Harvard researchers described four decades of low-fat recommendations as a "failed experiment," noting that such diets, emphasizing refined carbohydrates, fail to sustain or improve cardiovascular outcomes in RCTs compared to higher-fat alternatives. This shift coincided with prevalence in the U.S. climbing from approximately 15% in the late 1970s to over 40% by the 2010s, a trend attributed by skeptics to elevated insulin responses from carbohydrate-heavy patterns rather than caloric excess alone. Further critiques highlight procedural flaws, including the selective interpretation of evidence and resistance to updating saturated fat limits despite meta-analyses showing no clear harm from moderate intake. Investigative journalist has documented instances where guideline committees, such as in the 2020 USDA report, disregarded their own systematic reviews exonerating saturated fats to maintain longstanding restrictions, potentially influenced by entrenched institutional paradigms favoring plant-based, low-fat models. Similarly, science writer argues in Good Calories, Bad Calories that guidelines perpetuate a flawed carbohydrate tolerance, ignoring physiological evidence that refined carbs drive fat storage via hormonal mechanisms, as demonstrated in controlled feeding studies. These issues are compounded by acknowledged biases in nutrition research, where observational data susceptible to confounders like healthy user effects often overrides trial results, leading to recommendations misaligned with metabolic causality. WHO guidelines, emphasizing reduced saturated fats and increased whole grains, encounter parallel evidence-based challenges, with reviews indicating insufficient high-quality RCTs to substantiate broad population-level carbohydrate targets over individualized low-carbohydrate approaches effective for insulin resistance. As of 2025, proposed revisions to U.S. guidelines signal tentative reevaluation of caps, prompted by accumulating trial data favoring whole-food fats over processed carbs, though critics maintain that systemic reliance on weak persists.

Biotechnology and Genetic Modification

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food production emerged in the 1990s, with the first commercial GM crop, the tomato engineered for delayed ripening, approved by the (FDA) in 1994. Subsequent approvals included herbicide-tolerant soybeans in 1996 and insect-resistant corn, leading to widespread adoption; by 2020, GM crops covered 190 million hectares globally, primarily in the . These modifications typically involve inserting genes from or other organisms to confer traits like pest resistance or herbicide tolerance, distinct from traditional which lacks such precision. Empirical data indicate benefits including yield increases of 22% on average and chemical reductions of 37% across GM adopters, with meta-analyses attributing these to traits like (Bt) toxin production in crops that target specific insects. Herbicide-tolerant varieties have enabled , reducing and fuel use, while overall environmental impact from pesticide applications declined 17.3% from 1996 to 2020. Farmer profits rose 68% in adopting regions, particularly benefiting smallholders in developing countries through higher outputs and lower input costs. These outcomes stem from causal mechanisms where targeted genetic insertions minimize broad-spectrum chemical reliance, though long-term data show evolving pest pressures requiring integrated management. Debates center on safety, with major scientific bodies including the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine () concluding in 2016 that GM foods pose no greater risks than conventionally bred counterparts after reviewing over 1,000 studies. The FDA and affirm this, citing no validated evidence of health harms like toxicity or allergenicity from approved GM varieties. Dissenting claims, such as potential or metabolic disruptions, appear in minority publications but lack replication in large-scale trials; for instance, a 2015 statement from the European Network of Scientists for Social and Environmental Responsibility questioned consensus yet was critiqued for selective evidence amid broader affirmative reviews. Public skepticism persists, with 51% of U.S. adults in 2020 viewing GM foods as worse for health, often amplified by advocacy groups despite empirical refutation. Environmentally, herbicide-tolerant GM crops have correlated with glyphosate use increases, fostering resistant weeds in 25 U.S. states by 2016, necessitating diversified herbicides. Conversely, Bt crops reduced insecticide applications by over 50% in some cases, benefiting non-target insects and biodiversity in field studies. Corporate consolidation, exemplified by Bayer's 2018 acquisition of Monsanto, fuels concerns over seed patents restricting farmer reuse, though this reflects intellectual property incentives for R&D investment rather than inherent technological flaws. Advancements in CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, introduced around 2012, enable precise alterations without foreign DNA insertion, producing traits like disease-resistant or non-browning mushrooms approved by the FDA in 2015. Unlike traditional GMOs, CRISPR-edited crops often evade "GMO" labeling in regulations like the U.S. and face fewer barriers in the for non-transgenic edits, accelerating development for such as drought-tolerant . Debates persist on whether such precision mitigates risks, with proponents arguing it aligns closer to natural mutations, while critics invoke precautionary principles amid limited long-term data. Overall, biotechnology's causal efficacy in enhancing is evidenced by adoption rates exceeding 90% for major U.S. crops, countering narratives of unproven hazard through rigorous pre-market assessments. Processed foods encompass a spectrum of items altered through industrial techniques, ranging from minimal interventions like to extensive formulations involving additives, emulsifiers, and flavor enhancers. The system delineates four categories based on processing extent: Group 1 includes unprocessed or minimally processed foods such as fresh fruits, vegetables, and meats; Group 2 comprises culinary ingredients like oils, sugars, and salts extracted or refined for cooking; Group 3 covers processed foods such as canned vegetables, cheeses, and freshly made breads that incorporate Group 1 and 2 items with added salt or sugar for preservation; and Group 4 denotes ultra-processed foods (UPFs), which are formulations of ingredients not typically used in home cooking, including , hydrogenated oils, and protein isolates, exemplified by sodas, packaged snacks, and ready-to-eat meals. In many high-income countries, UPFs constitute 50-60% of daily caloric intake, contributing to dietary patterns dominated by over nutrient density. Empirical evidence from prospective cohort studies and meta-analyses consistently links higher UPF consumption to adverse health outcomes, including increased risks of obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and all-cause mortality. A 2024 umbrella review of meta-analyses found UPF intake associated with elevated odds of diabetes (OR 1.25), hypertension, dyslipidemia, and obesity, attributing risks to factors like rapid digestibility, low fiber content, and hyper-palatability that promote overconsumption. Similarly, a BMJ meta-analysis of 45 studies reported a 50% higher CVD risk, 48-53% increased mortality from CVD and obesity-related cancers, and 21% greater all-cause mortality with top-quartile UPF exposure versus lowest. Randomized controlled trials provide causal support: participants assigned ad libitum UPF diets gained 0.9 kg over two weeks and consumed 500 more calories daily compared to unprocessed diets matched for macronutrients, due to faster eating rates and reduced satiety. Mechanisms include disrupted gut microbiota from emulsifiers, oxidative stress from advanced glycation end-products formed during high-heat processing, and insulin resistance from frequent glycemic spikes in carbohydrate-heavy UPFs. While some processed foods in Groups 1-3 offer nutritional benefits like extended shelf life for vegetables, UPFs' formulations prioritize shelf stability and sensory appeal over bioavailability, correlating with micronutrient deficiencies in habitual consumers. Dietary trends since the 2010s reflect growing awareness of these risks, with movements advocating reduced processing in favor of whole-food-centric regimens. Low-carbohydrate and ketogenic diets, emphasizing unprocessed meats, eggs, and fats while excluding and sugars, have gained traction, supported by trials showing superior and glycemic control versus standard low-fat advice. Paleo-style eating, which avoids grains, , and —often processed—mirrors ancestral patterns and aligns with 2025 surveys indicating consumer shifts toward "back to basics" with clean, minimally altered ingredients. High-protein trends, projected to dominate 2025 innovations, prioritize nutrient-dense sources like over UPF snacks, driven by benefits and muscle preservation in aging populations. protocols, incorporating fatty and while limiting UPFs, stem from evidence linking processing-induced compounds to chronic and diseases like . Concurrently, the UPF debate intensifies, with calls for reformulation amid stagnant rates; however, industry-funded research occasionally minimizes harms, contrasting independent meta-evidence. Global surveys for 2025 forecast sustained demand for functional, low-processed alternatives, potentially reducing UPF reliance through policy nudges like front-of-pack labeling.

Future Directions

Technological Advancements

Technological advancements in food production and are increasingly leveraging , , and data-driven systems to enhance efficiency, sustainability, and nutritional outcomes. integrates (AI), (IoT) sensors, and drones to optimize yields by monitoring , water usage, and pest pressures in real-time, potentially reducing resource inputs by up to 20-30% while minimizing environmental impacts. In , advanced handle tasks like sorting, packaging, and , addressing labor shortages and improving ; for instance, robotic systems in 2024 deployments increased throughput by 40% in high-volume facilities without compromising safety standards. Biotechnological innovations, particularly CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, enable targeted modifications in crops and livestock to boost resilience against climate stressors and pathogens. As of 2025, CRISPR applications have developed drought-tolerant varieties yielding 15-25% more under water-limited conditions and strains resistant to bacterial , reducing reliance by engineering natural defenses rather than broad-spectrum chemicals. These edits, unlike traditional breeding, achieve precision without introducing foreign DNA, facilitating regulatory approvals in regions like the and accelerating commercialization; over 50 CRISPR-edited crop traits entered field trials globally by mid-2025. However, remains challenged by varietal specificity and public skepticism toward genetic interventions, with adoption varying by jurisdiction. Alternative protein technologies, including precision fermentation and cellular agriculture, aim to decouple food production from land-intensive farming. Precision fermentation uses engineered microbes to produce proteins like casein or heme at industrial scales, yielding dairy alternatives with 90% lower greenhouse gas emissions than conventional methods; companies scaled production to tons per year by 2024, enabling cost-competitive products under $5 per kilogram. Cultured meat, grown from animal cells in bioreactors, reached pilot-scale facilities producing kilograms daily in 2025, though high media costs—around $10-20 per kilogram—limit it to premium markets despite projected reductions via optimized bioreactors. Vertical farming complements these by stacking hydroponic systems indoors, achieving 10-20 times higher yields per square meter than field agriculture with 95% less water, though energy demands from LED lighting constrain profitability without renewable integration. Emerging processing tools like and traceability further refine supply chains. fabricates customized nutrition bars or textures for patients using edible inks, with commercial printers processing 100+ units hourly since 2024 models. ensures end-to-end verification, reducing fraud in global ; implementations in 2025 traced 80% of origins in participating chains, cutting recalls by verifying compliance with standards like HACCP. These technologies collectively promise to address population-driven demand—projected to require 70% more food by 2050—but face hurdles in energy efficiency and equitable access, with empirical data underscoring the need for cost declines to match incumbent systems.

Personalized and Alternative Nutrition

Personalized nutrition involves tailoring dietary recommendations to an individual's genetic profile, gut microbiome composition, metabolic responses, and factors to optimize outcomes. Advances in nutrigenomics, which examines how genes interact with nutrients, have identified specific variants, such as those in the , that influence responses to calorie intake and risk, enabling targeted interventions. However, systematic reviews indicate that while promising associations exist, commercial nutrigenomic testing often overstates predictive power due to limited replicability in large-scale trials and environmental confounders. Integration of gut microbiome analysis represents a growing , as diet profoundly shapes microbial diversity and function, with inter-individual variations predicting responses to fiber-rich or fermented foods. Studies demonstrate that baseline profiles can forecast success from interventions like high-fiber diets, with species such as correlating with improved metabolic markers. AI-driven platforms are emerging to analyze multi-omics data—combining , , and real-time biomarkers from wearables—for dynamic meal planning, though empirical validation remains preliminary, with few randomized trials confirming long-term efficacy beyond short-term adherence. By 2025, such tools are projected to expand via precision health initiatives, potentially addressing conditions like through customized nutrient timing. Alternative nutrition strategies focus on novel protein sources and production methods to enhance sustainability and nutritional density amid resource constraints. Cultivated meat, produced by culturing animal cells in bioreactors, has advanced toward commercialization by 2025, with cost reductions via serum-free media and scalable bioreactors enabling pilot-scale production, though regulatory approvals in the U.S. and elsewhere lag due to safety and labeling hurdles. Insect-derived proteins, rich in essential and micronutrients, offer high feed efficiency—requiring 75% less land than —but face consumer acceptance barriers despite nutritional equivalence in trials. , such as spirulina, provide complete proteins with minimal resource inputs, yielding up to 20 tons per hectare annually, positioning them as viable for fortified foods in nutrient-deficient regions. These alternatives prioritize empirical metrics like protein digestibility-corrected scores over unsubstantiated health halo effects, with lifecycle analyses showing potential greenhouse gas reductions of 80-90% compared to conventional .

Addressing Global Challenges

In 2025, approximately 673 million people worldwide face , representing a stagnation in progress toward eliminating undernourishment, with elevated food price eroding particularly in low-income countries. Conflicts, geopolitical tensions, and economic volatility have intensified acute food insecurity in 18 hotspots, affecting millions at risk of . compounds these issues by reducing global crop production, with models estimating a loss of 5.5 × 10^{14} kcal annually per 1 °C rise in global mean surface temperature, even accounting for farmer adaptations like altered planting schedules. In high-productivity regions such as the and , yields for major staples could decline by up to 40% under continued warming, threatening export capacities and . Efforts to address these challenges emphasize boosting , which empirical studies identify as the primary driver for reducing food insecurity among the global poor, who predominantly rely on farming for livelihoods. Technological advancements, including enabled by AI and monitoring, optimize resource use such as and fertilizers, potentially increasing yields by 10-20% in water-scarce areas while minimizing . Biotechnology developments, such as drought- and pest-resistant crop varieties, have demonstrated yield gains of 20-30% in field trials across and , countering climate-induced losses without relying on expansive land conversion. and controlled-environment systems further mitigate risks from , producing staples like leafy greens with 95% less than traditional methods, scalable for urban food deserts. Population growth to nearly 10 billion by 2050 necessitates 50-70% higher food output, yet 2025 projections indicate record global harvests for , , and soybeans, underscoring the potential of hybrid seeds and to meet demand absent policy distortions. Reducing the one-third of food lost to post-harvest through improved storage and logistics—via blockchain-tracked supply chains—could feed an additional 2 billion people without new production. International initiatives prioritize market-oriented reforms over subsidies, as evidence shows property rights and trade liberalization historically halved hunger rates since the 1990s , though recent reversals highlight the need for resilience against shocks like shortages. Integrating expands nutrient access and , with studies linking tree-integrated farms to 20% higher household in tropical regions. These approaches, grounded in causal links between gains and nutritional outcomes, offer verifiable paths to amid biophysical constraints.

References

  1. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/food/
  2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554545/
  3. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8538100/
  4. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet
  5. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/nutrition
  6. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/food-science
  7. https://byjus.com/biology/food-sources-animal-plant-products/
  8. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4266855/
  9. https://www.webmd.com/diet/foods-high-in-water
  10. https://foodcrumbles.com/food-science-bascis-6-weeks-part-2-food-chemistry/
  11. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/nutritional-disorders/nutrition-general-considerations/overview-of-nutrition
  12. https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Brevard_College/CHE_301_Biochemistry/07%253A_Nutrition/7.01%253A_Nutrients
  13. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28310880/
  14. https://www.ars.usda.gov/is/np/NutritiveValueofFoods/NutritiveValueofFoods.pdf
  15. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/nutritionscience2e/chapter/1c-classification-of-nutrients/
  16. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41538-025-00395-x
  17. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10606280/
  18. https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/static/100022.html
  19. https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/about-dietary-guidelines/history-dietary-guidelines
  20. https://news.va.gov/132031/a-healthy-history-of-myplate-food-guide/
  21. https://hsph.harvard.edu/news/centennial-food-guides-history/
  22. https://myplate-prod.azureedge.us/sites/default/files/2024-05/A-Brief-History-of-the-USDA-Food-Guides.pdf
  23. https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-NOVA-Method-of-Food-Classification.aspx
  24. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8877594/
  25. https://iafns.org/our-work/nutrition/food-classification/
  26. https://iafns.org/supporting-science-based-food-classification/
  27. https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/evidence-for-meat-eating-by-early-humans-103874273/
  28. https://theconversation.com/the-real-paleo-diet-new-archaeological-evidence-changes-what-we-thought-about-how-ancient-humans-prepared-food-195127
  29. https://www.cnn.com/2024/04/30/africa/morocco-ancient-humans-paleo-diet-scn
  30. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/hunter-gatherer-culture/
  31. https://frontline.thehindu.com/science-and-technology/anthropology-evidence-of-cooking-780000-years-ago-rewrites-human-history/article66164290.ece
  32. https://archaeologymag.com/2025/10/how-scavenging-shaped-human-evolution/
  33. https://news.liverpool.ac.uk/2022/11/23/the-real-paleo-diet-new-archaeological-evidence-changes-what-we-thought-about-how-ancient-humans-prepared-food/
  34. https://www.britannica.com/topic/agriculture/How-agriculture-and-domestication-began
  35. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/neolithic-agricultural-revolution
  36. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/development-agriculture/
  37. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379120303747
  38. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8214435/
  39. https://today.uconn.edu/2022/09/ancient-dung-reveals-earliest-evidence-for-animal-tending/
  40. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0286
  41. https://fiveable.me/origins-of-civilization/unit-2
  42. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/world-history-beginnings/birth-agriculture-neolithic-revolution/a/where-did-agriculture-come-from
  43. https://populationeducation.org/a-timeline-of-the-three-major-agricultural-revolutions-in-history/
  44. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/effects-of-the-agricultural-revolution/
  45. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6628670/
  46. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology_%28Evans%29/07%253A_Economic_Organization/7.06%253A_Neolithic_Revolution
  47. https://seeds.ca/schoolfoodgardens/how-agriculture-affects-population-growth/
  48. https://libguides.aisr.org/industrialrevolution/food
  49. https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/ipd/canning/timeline-table
  50. https://www.acumence.com/the-history-of-canning-and-can-making/
  51. https://www.alimentarium.org/sites/default/files/applications/Timeline_inventions_EN/dist/index.html
  52. https://blog.smartsense.co/food-preservation-in-the-industrial-age
  53. https://foodsystemhistory.wordpress.com/timeline/
  54. https://ourworldindata.org/yields-vs-land-use-how-has-the-world-produced-enough-food-for-a-growing-population
  55. http://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2024/september/global-changes-in-agricultural-production-productivity-and-resource-use-over-six-decades
  56. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK114491/
  57. https://www.globalfoodresearchprogram.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/UPF_ultra-processed_food_fact_sheet.pdf
  58. https://seeds.ca/schoolfoodgardens/the-impact-of-globalization-on-the-food-system/
  59. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Major-Food-Commodities-That-Explain-80-of-the-Total-Food-Calories-Produced-a_tbl1_264675389
  60. https://www.fao.org/4/u8480e/u8480e07.htm
  61. https://www.tridge.com/news/grain-production-in-the-world-in-2023-was-a-record
  62. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/bk-2011-1089.ch001
  63. https://extension.psu.edu/plant-based-diet
  64. https://www.pcrm.org/good-nutrition/plant-based-diets
  65. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10105836/
  66. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/animal-vs-plant-protein
  67. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11306033/
  68. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/foodfeatures/evolution-of-diet/
  69. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2025/07/oecd-fao-agricultural-outlook-2025-2034_3eb15914/full-report/meat_5462e384.html
  70. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/fao-statistical-yearbook-2024-world-food-and-agriculture
  71. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/animal-based-food
  72. https://geoblueplanet.org/the-fao-releases-the-state-of-world-fisheries-and-aquaculture-2024/
  73. https://fieldreport.caes.uga.edu/publications/B1575/protein-showdown-comparison-of-plant-based-and-animal-based-foods/
  74. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8921037/
  75. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0309174018301712
  76. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092422442400102X
  77. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9818480/
  78. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41538-024-00299-2
  79. https://microbenotes.com/single-cell-protein/
  80. https://www.quorn.us/news/how-is-quorn-made-introduction-to-quorn-and-mycoprotein
  81. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6554455/
  82. https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2024/fb/d3fb00169e
  83. https://nutritionfacts.org/blog/are-mycoprotein-quorn-products-good-for-us/
  84. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10930894/
  85. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666833522000454
  86. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/13/18/10451
  87. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214799324000729
  88. https://gfi.org/science/the-science-of-fermentation/
  89. https://www.susupport.com/blogs/knowledge/precision-fermentation-simply-explained
  90. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38394936/
  91. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-55603-7
  92. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2021.687712/full
  93. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6728817/
  94. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000291652200418X
  95. https://gfi.org/science/the-science-of-cultivated-meat/
  96. https://csgmidwest.org/2025/04/25/though-not-yet-on-grocery-shelves-lab-grown-meat-is-focus-of-new-laws-and-legislation/
  97. https://phys.org/news/2025-07-thicker-realistic-lab-grown-beef.html
  98. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/science/articles/10.3389/fsci.2025.1599300/full
  99. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41538-024-00291-w
  100. https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/what-should-you-eat/protein/
  101. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK594226/
  102. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/what-are-macronutrients
  103. https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/
  104. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002399.htm
  105. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218735/
  106. https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/vitamins/
  107. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK597352/
  108. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-system-how-it-works
  109. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544242/
  110. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Human_Biology_%28Wakim_and_Grewal%29/18%253A_Digestive_System/18.3%253A_Digestion_and_Absorption
  111. https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1840-digestive-enzymes
  112. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537284/
  113. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459280/
  114. https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/disorders-of-nutrition/overview-of-nutrition/carbohydrates-proteins-and-fats
  115. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21201-endocrine-system
  116. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22283-glucagon
  117. https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/surprising-findings-about-metabolism-and-age-202110082613
  118. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16280423/
  119. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/weight-loss/in-depth/metabolism/art-20046508
  120. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2161831325000298
  121. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2783625
  122. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10831891/
  123. https://www.bmj.com/content/384/bmj-2023-077310
  124. https://diabetesjournals.org/care/article/46/7/1335/148548/Ultra-Processed-Food-Consumption-and-Risk-of-Type
  125. https://www.bmj.com/content/369/bmj.m696
  126. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7071223/
  127. https://www.jacc.org/doi/10.1016/j.jacc.2020.05.077
  128. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.035225
  129. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2812392
  130. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033062022000834
  131. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7613518/
  132. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001365
  133. https://www.crestcapital.com/tax/history_of_agriculture
  134. https://farmonaut.com/precision-farming/modern-agriculture-7-shocking-innovations-for-huge-yields
  135. https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2024/september/global-changes-in-agricultural-production-productivity-and-resource-use-over-six-decades
  136. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590332220300889
  137. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10764956/
  138. https://rodaleinstitute.org/why-organic/organic-farming-practices/crop-rotations/
  139. https://ourworldindata.org/is-organic-agriculture-better-for-the-environment
  140. https://ourworldindata.org/global-land-for-agriculture
  141. https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/high-yield-farming-costs-the-environment-less-than-previously-thought-and-could-help-spare-habitats
  142. https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food
  143. https://www.fao.org/4/i2414e/i2414e.pdf
  144. https://ourworldindata.org/meat-production
  145. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/partner-content-livestock-farming-future
  146. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2367646/
  147. https://thebreakthrough.org/issues/food-agriculture-environment/livestock-dont-contribute-14-5-of-global-greenhouse-gas-emissions
  148. https://www.globalseafood.org/advocate/fao-aquaculture-officially-overtakes-fisheries-in-global-seafood-production/
  149. https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/collection/aquaculture
  150. https://aquaasiapac.com/2024/06/20/fao-sofia-global-fisheries-and-aquaculture-production-reaches-a-new-record-high/
  151. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/aquaculture-farmed-fish-production
  152. https://ourworldindata.org/crop-yields
  153. https://publichealth.jhu.edu/56/food-processing
  154. https://rex.libraries.wsu.edu/esploro/outputs/report/Food-extrusion-processing--An-overview/99900502967701842
  155. https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/scau/downloads/2009_0715_Jun.pdf
  156. https://nchfp.uga.edu/resources/entry/historical-origins-of-food-preservation
  157. https://blog.smartsense.co/short-history-of-food-preservation
  158. https://foodsci.oregonstate.edu/value-added-food-product-development/food-processing-technologies
  159. https://www.baptisthealth.com/blog/recipes/food-preservation-methods-which-is-better-nutritionally
  160. https://agriculture.institute/food-fundamentals-fv/preserve-nutrients-food-processing-storage/
  161. https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/fb/d5fb00136f
  162. https://www.ift.org/policy-and-advocacy/advocacy-toolkits/food-processing/non-thermal-preservation
  163. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6603079/
  164. https://www.ffhdj.com/index.php/FunctionalFoodScience/article/view/1326
  165. https://food.unl.edu/article/haccp-seven-principles/
  166. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-food-systems/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2024.1441479/full
  167. https://www.fda.gov/food/guidance-regulation-food-and-dietary-supplements/food-safety-modernization-act-fsma
  168. https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius
  169. https://www.fao.org/food-safety/food-control-systems/policy-and-legal-frameworks/codex-alimentarius/en/
  170. https://safetyculture.com/topics/food-safety
  171. https://goaudits.com/blog/food-quality-assurance-and-quality-control/
  172. https://www.fda.gov/food/compliance-enforcement-food/inspections-protect-food-supply
  173. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-25-107571
  174. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-safety
  175. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12038571/
  176. https://www.seriouseats.com/what-is-maillard-reaction-cooking-science
  177. https://www.foodsafety.gov/food-safety-charts/safe-minimum-internal-temperatures
  178. https://www.webstaurantstore.com/article/454/types-of-cooking-methods.html
  179. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4745522/
  180. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6049644/
  181. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S240584402308917X
  182. https://www.ciachef.edu/blog/3-types-cooking-methods-foods-love/
  183. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/cooking-nutrient-content
  184. https://fiveable.me/key-terms/principles-food-science/sensory-properties
  185. https://www.markys.com/blog/the-science-of-food-sensory-evaluation-tasting-smelling-and-assessing-flavor
  186. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10527616/
  187. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867415002603
  188. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92852/
  189. https://flavourjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13411-015-0031-3
  190. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7037180/
  191. https://library.imaging.org/jpi/articles/5/0/jpi0149
  192. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/computer-science/articles/10.3389/fcomp.2021.694691/full
  193. https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/foodpreparationlab/chapter/1-3/
  194. https://www.doneproperly.co/en/news/multisensory-perception-taste-and-smell/
  195. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309523732_Multisensory_flavour_perception_From_Food_to_Perception
  196. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8899294/
  197. https://tpd.edu.au/exploring-the-sensory-properties-of-food/
  198. https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/1221223
  199. https://www.mccormickfona.com/articles/2012/04/understanding-senses--in-sensory-evaluation
  200. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/joss.70051
  201. https://agsci.psu.edu/college-connections/recordings/the-science-behind-food-preferences
  202. https://www.nature.com/research-intelligence/nri-topic-summaries/multisensory-perception-in-food-and-music-micro-406
  203. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3832477/
  204. https://medium.com/the-springboard/how-geography-determines-each-cultures-cuisine-f9489651eb61
  205. https://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/publications/articles/se_740117.pdf
  206. https://ugandagroceryonline.com/exploring-the-staple-foods-of-all-54-african-countries-a-culinary-journey/
  207. https://mysasun.com/blogs/bloglearning-bytes/30-staples-of-african-kitchens
  208. https://www.escoffier.edu/blog/world-food-drink/french-cooking-how-and-why-french-cuisine-came-to-rule-the-world/
  209. https://www.escoffier.edu/blog/world-food-drink/american-regional-cuisines/
  210. https://fiveable.me/international-food-culture/unit-2/historical-influences-trade-migration-colonization/study-guide/kROgq7Kky9Y3vL28
  211. https://commonplace.online/article/african-foods-making-americas/
  212. https://latino.si.edu/learn/latino-history-and-culture/latino-culture/latino-food
  213. https://foodsafety.institute/food-fundamentals-chemistry/global-cuisines-culture-trade-influence/
  214. https://www.statista.com/outlook/cmo/food/worldwide
  215. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c6828277-8ca4-43e4-9033-c28d488d1083/content
  216. http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/ag-and-food-statistics-charting-the-essentials/ag-and-food-sectors-and-the-economy
  217. https://www.fao.org/3/cd2144en/online/state-of-agricultural-commodity-markets/2024/pattern-evolution-food-trade.html
  218. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2025/07/oecd-fao-agricultural-outlook-2025-2034_3eb15914/full-report/agricultural-and-food-markets-trends-and-prospects_d3812d71.html
  219. http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/ag-and-food-statistics-charting-the-essentials/agricultural-trade
  220. https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/trade-spotlight-us-agricultural-exports-close-2024-on-strong-note
  221. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306919213001188
  222. https://www.iatp.org/global-hunger-remains-intractable-food-price-volatility-accelerates
  223. https://giannini.ucop.edu/filer/file/1453327750/16786/
  224. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2935118/
  225. https://www.glopan.org/food-price-volatility/
  226. https://www.oecd.org/en/about/news/press-releases/2024/11/oecd-advises-countries-to-redirect-public-subsidies-and-other-support-for-agriculture-to-innovation.html
  227. https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/sub-issues/government-support-to-agriculture.html
  228. https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/068/2024/002/article-A001-en.xml
  229. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228121163_Global_Food_Price_Volatility_and_Spikes_An_Overview_of_Costs_Causes_and_Solutions
  230. https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/policy-issues/agricultural-policy-monitoring.html
  231. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/08/food-supply-chain-networks-why-sustainable-practices-fail-and-approaches-to-improve-them/
  232. https://www.fao.org/3/cd2616en/online/state-of-food-and-agriculture-2024/food-supply-chains-transformation.html
  233. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956713525004001
  234. https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/USFoodFlowsSummary.pdf
  235. https://ourworldindata.org/food-transport-by-mode
  236. https://farmdocdaily.illinois.edu/2025/05/agri-food-transportation-by-highway-railway-and-waterway-in-the-united-states.html
  237. https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/food-logistics-market
  238. https://safetyculture.com/topics/cold-chain-management/food-cold-chain
  239. https://www.peaktech.com/blog/why-the-food-industry-needs-cold-chain-logistics/
  240. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8014318/
  241. https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Industries/Consumer%2520Packaged%2520Goods/Our%2520Insights/US%2520food%2520supply%2520chain%2520Disruptions%2520and%2520implications%2520from%2520COVID%252019/US-food-supply-chain-Disruptions-and-implications-from-COVID-19-vF.pdf
  242. https://blog.foodsconnected.com/red-sea-supply-chain-disruptions-affecting-food-supply-chain
  243. https://refed.org/food-waste/the-problem/
  244. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S240584402410761X
  245. https://www.aplu.org/our-work/2-fostering-research-innovation/challenge-of-change/cfc-seven-challenges/challenge3/
  246. https://www.fao.org/publications/fao-flagship-publications/the-state-of-food-security-and-nutrition-in-the-world/en
  247. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malnutrition
  248. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/food-security-update
  249. https://www.who.int/news/item/24-07-2024-hunger-numbers-stubbornly-high-for-three-consecutive-years-as-global-crises-deepen--un-report
  250. https://data.unicef.org/resources/sofi-2024/
  251. https://data.unicef.org/topic/nutrition/malnutrition/
  252. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight
  253. https://www.fsinplatform.org/report/global-report-food-crises-2025/
  254. https://www.fsinplatform.org/report/global-report-food-crises-2024/
  255. https://www.globalhungerindex.org/pdf/en/2024.pdf
  256. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/nutrition/overview
  257. https://ourworldindata.org/water-use-stress
  258. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/chart-globally-70-freshwater-used-agriculture
  259. https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Nov/IRENA_FAO_Renewables_Agrifood_2021.pdf
  260. https://www.fao.org/statistics/highlights-archive/highlights-detail/inorganic-fertilizers-2002-2023/en
  261. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/ecb51a59-ac4d-407a-80de-c7d6c3e15fcc/content
  262. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/121cc613-3d0f-431c-b083-cc2031dd8826/content
  263. https://ourworldindata.org/greenhouse-gas-emissions-food
  264. https://www.fao.org/in-action/enteric-methane/en
  265. http://openknowledge.fao.org/items/bcd70cc0-02ac-4120-bcd4-e6775aa427b2
  266. https://unfccc.int/news/food-loss-and-waste-account-for-8-10-of-annual-global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-cost-usd-1-trillion
  267. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11683860/
  268. https://www.unep.org/facts-about-nature-crisis
  269. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/2021-02-03-food-system-biodiversity-loss-benton-et-al_0.pdf
  270. https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/biodiversity-and-climate-action-in-agriculture-and-food-systems.pdf
  271. https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/global-deforestation-slows--but-forests-remain-under-pressure--fao-report-shows/en
  272. https://earth.org/how-animal-agriculture-is-accelerating-global-deforestation/
  273. https://www.welthungerhilfe.org/news/latest-articles/2021/the-loss-of-biodiversity-threatens-world-food-security
  274. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666833522000612
  275. https://www.nature.com/articles/s44264-023-00009-7
  276. https://www.eitfood.eu/blog/can-regenerative-agriculture-replace-conventional-farming
  277. https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2025/10/24/viewpoint-what-would-the-world-be-like-if-organic-advocates-achieve-the-agricultural-transformation-they-promote/
  278. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11233703/
  279. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12444378/
  280. https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/new-fao-report-maps-pathways-towards-lower-livestock-emissions/en
  281. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/pharmacology/articles/10.3389/fphar.2017.00830/full
  282. https://www.fda.gov/food/chemical-contaminants-pesticides/environmental-contaminants-food
  283. https://www.edf.org/health/heavy-metals-food
  284. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23424-heavy-metal-poisoning-toxicity
  285. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289071796
  286. https://www.fda.gov/food/environmental-contaminants-food/closer-zero-reducing-childhood-exposure-contaminants-foods
  287. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/pesticide-residues-in-food
  288. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34256297/
  289. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ijc.34300
  290. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/substances/aflatoxins
  291. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2898859/
  292. https://news.asu.edu/20240814-science-and-technology-asu-researchers-help-control-cancercausing-poison-corn
  293. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959804912001463
  294. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/4104
  295. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/150604
  296. https://www.fda.gov/food/process-contaminants-food/acrylamide
  297. https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/codex-texts/list-standards/en/
  298. https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/coher_e/wto_codex_e.htm
  299. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-additives
  300. https://www.fda.gov/food/guidance-regulation-food-and-dietary-supplements
  301. https://www.fda.gov/food/retail-food-protection/fda-food-code
  302. https://www.foodingredientfacts.org/knowledge-center/food-safety-regulation/
  303. https://food.ec.europa.eu/horizontal-topics/general-food-law_en
  304. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en
  305. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/food-additives
  306. https://www.fao.org/food-labelling/en
  307. https://criticalreload.com/examining-fda-food-additive-regulations-a-global-perspective-on-safety-and-consumer-impact/
  308. https://www.who.int/health-topics/food-safety
  309. https://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/php/public-health-strategy/index.html
  310. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5740998/
  311. https://www.who.int/health-topics/food-fortification
  312. https://www.gatesfoundation.org/ideas/articles/food-fortification-to-fortify-the-future
  313. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44187-025-00512-5
  314. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37499980/
  315. https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-024-00997-w
  316. https://sjes.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41937-019-0048-0
  317. https://www.uchicagomedicine.org/forefront/prevention-and-screening-articles/2017/april/research-suggests-bans-on-trans-fats-linked-to-healthier-communities
  318. https://www.rutgers.edu/news/us-trans-fat-ban-can-save-lives-says-rutgers-nutrition-expert
  319. https://www.jacc.org/doi/10.1016/j.jacc.2024.04.067
  320. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2792849
  321. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10195460/
  322. https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-13-1072
  323. https://publichealth.jhu.edu/sites/default/files/2021-09/finaladvisorapprovedcapstonepaperscapstonefinalpapermilesbaileydmiles9file.pdf
  324. https://frac.org/programs/national-school-lunch-program/benefits-school-lunch
  325. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2822155
  326. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6064655/
  327. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030691922500106X
  328. https://ajcn.nutrition.org/article/S0002-9165%2823%2965959-3/fulltext
  329. https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/1/3/pgac107/6647007
  330. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9794145/
  331. https://hsph.harvard.edu/news/low-fat-diets-failed-experiment/
  332. https://www.levels.com/blog/why-have-dietary-guidelines-been-so-wrong-and-how-do-they-still-need-to-change
  333. https://www.crossfit.com/health/good-calories-bad-calories
  334. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3024813/
  335. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6650179/
  336. https://www.npr.org/sections/shots-health-news/2025/10/08/nx-s1-5564026/dietary-guidelines-rfk-saturated-fat-2025
  337. https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-biotechnology/science-and-history-gmos-and-other-food-modification-processes
  338. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9578716/
  339. https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-biotechnology/gmo-crops-animal-food-and-beyond
  340. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0111629
  341. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600850
  342. https://www.science.org/content/article/once-again-us-expert-panel-says-genetically-engineered-crops-are-safe-eat
  343. https://www.nationalacademies.org/based-on-science/foods-made-with-gmos-do-not-pose-special-health-risks
  344. https://enveurope.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s12302-014-0034-1
  345. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3791249/
  346. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2020/03/18/about-half-of-u-s-adults-are-wary-of-health-effects-of-genetically-modified-foods-but-many-also-see-advantages/
  347. https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-biotechnology/genome-editing-agricultural-biotechnology
  348. https://crispr-gene-editing-regs-tracker.geneticliteracyproject.org/united-states-crops-food/
  349. https://innovativegenomics.org/news/crispr-in-agriculture-2024/
  350. https://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/5/default.asp
  351. https://world.openfoodfacts.org/nova
  352. https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/processed-foods/
  353. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2161831323013820
  354. https://dom-pubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/dom.15922
  355. https://www.nature.com/articles/s44324-025-00056-3
  356. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11559431/
  357. https://globalnews.ca/news/10939737/2025-diets-what-to-know/
  358. https://www.eatingwell.com/eatingwell-food-and-nutrition-trends-2025-8761210
  359. https://clf.jhsph.edu/viewpoints/food-trends-2025-focus-healthful-foods-viral-trends-and-protein
  360. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/5-trends-from-nutrition-2025-dylan-bailey-ms-rd-fand-8n6xe
  361. https://khni.kerry.com/trends-and-insights/ten-key-health-and-nutrition-trends-of-this-year/
  362. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12255795/
  363. https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2024/11/19/Top-food-tech-trends-2025-AI-GLP-1-functional-foods/
  364. https://www.roboticstomorrow.com/article/2024/08/food-robotics-transforming-the-future-of-food-processing/23024
  365. https://analyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/biot.70113
  366. https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2025/01/23/10-ways-crispr-gene-editing-is-revolutionizing-agriculture-and-medicine/
  367. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genome-editing/articles/10.3389/fgeed.2025.1711767/full
  368. https://brightgreenpartners.com/blog-insights/precision-fermentation-cellular-agriculture/
  369. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772566925001260
  370. https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-024-01936-8
  371. https://www.idtechex.com/en/research-article/can-emerging-technologies-make-food-production-more-sustainable/29089
  372. https://online.jwu.edu/blog/the-future-of-food-tech-in-the-culinary-landscape/
  373. https://www.oxmaint.com/blog/post/food-manufacturing-trends-2025-10-technologies-transforming-production
  374. https://www.icl-group.com/blog/hadar-sutovskys-vision-for-the-future-of-food-tech/
  375. https://www.startus-insights.com/innovators-guide/food-processing-industry-trends/
  376. https://www.mayoclinicplatform.org/2021/12/16/nutrigenomics-is-it-ready-for-prime-time/
  377. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3121546/
  378. https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/medical-critical-thinking-health-and-nutrition/yummy-hype-nutrigenomics
  379. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-019-0256-8
  380. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9537590/
  381. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2161831325000134
  382. https://www.digicomply.com/blog/lab-grown-meat-challenges-and-innovations-for-2025
  383. https://riseagainsthunger.org/articles/673-million-people-face-hunger-2025/
  384. https://www.wfp.org/publications/hunger-hotspots-fao-wfp-early-warnings-acute-food-insecurity
  385. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09085-w
  386. https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidrvetter/2025/06/18/us-and-europe-face-40-drop-in-food-production-scientists-warn/
  387. https://kingcenter.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj16611/files/media/file/kingcenter_evidencebrief_foodsecurity.pdf
  388. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589721724000151
  389. https://unu.edu/article/artificial-intelligence-can-transform-global-food-security-and-climate-action
  390. https://www.sustainabilitybynumbers.com/p/food-projections-2025
  391. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1102&context=joni
  392. https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-060922-041451
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
Contribute something
User Avatar
No comments yet.