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Pegasidae
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Pegasidae
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This article is about a scientific family of fishes. For the mythological Greek nymphs, see Pegasides.

Seamoth
Little dragonfish, Eurypegasus draconis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Clade: Percomorpha
Order: Syngnathiformes
Suborder: Dactylopteroidei
Family: Pegasidae
Bonaparte, 1831[1]
Genera

Eurypegasus
Pegasus

The seamoths make up a family of ray-finned fishes, the Pegasidae, within the order Syngnathiformes. They are named for Pegasus, a creature from Greek mythology. Seamoths are notable for their unusual appearance, including flattened bodies, the presence of large, wing-like, pectoral fins, a long snout, and a body encased in thick, bony plates. They are found primarily in coastal tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific.[2]

Biology

[edit]

Seamoths have modified pelvic fins that allow them to "walk" across the sea bottom where they live. Their jaws are ventral, located behind their long rostrum, and are toothless. Their mouth is highly specialized, and can form a tube-like mouth used to suck worms and other small invertebrates from their burrows.[3] They periodically molt their skin, perhaps as often as every five days.[4]

Conservation

[edit]

Pegasus lancifer and the two Eurypegasus species are listed as Least Concern by the IUCN, while the remaining species of seamoth remain Data Deficient. Threats to seamoths come from various sources, including fisheries where they are caught as bycatch or on purpose for use in traditional Chinese medicines. They are also collected for sale in the aquarium trade. Bottom trawls and coastal development may detrimentally alter habitat used by benthic seamoths. Life history characteristics such as low population sizes and monogamy with long-term pair bonding put them at risk of exploitation.[5][6][7][8][9][10]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Pegasidae

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Pegasidae, commonly known as seamoths, is a of small, benthic ray-finned fishes in the order , characterized by their broad, depressed bodies encased in a rigid armor of fused bony plates, an elongated flattened rostrum, and large, wing-like pectoral fins that aid in maneuvering over the seafloor. These unusual marine fishes, typically reaching a maximum length of about 13 cm, inhabit shallow coastal waters and use modified finger-like pelvic fins to "walk" along muddy or sandy bottoms while foraging for minute with a highly protrusible, tubular mouth. The family Pegasidae comprises eight recognized species divided between two genera: (six species) and Eurypegasus (two species), with recent additions including Pegasus sinensis described from the in 2022. Native to the Indo-West Pacific region—from the and eastward to and —these fishes are primarily marine but can occur in brackish environments. They are oviparous, with spawning taking place in open water near the surface, and lack a , relying instead on their pectoral fins for limited propulsion and stability. Morphologically, seamoths feature a small, inferior, toothless beneath the rostrum formed by fused , short dorsal and anal fins each with five soft rays, and a caudal fin with eight rays; their pectoral fins are particularly expansive, with 10–18 unbranched rays, enabling a or "flying" motion close to the substrate. The body is scaleless and covered by 11–12 tail rings, with periodic skin-shedding observed in species like Eurypegasus draconis, potentially occurring as frequently as every few days to remove parasites or . This armor and molting adaptation suit their cryptic, bottom-dwelling lifestyle in beds, estuaries, and soft sediments at depths from intertidal zones to about 50 m. Ecologically, Pegasidae species feed on zoobenthos such as polychaete worms and small crustaceans, using their specialized snout to suck prey from burrows, and exhibit low population densities that make them vulnerable to in fisheries. Some species, like Pegasus volitans and Eurypegasus draconis, form monogamous pairs and show potential declines in areas of heavy , though most remain in conservation assessments due to limited study. Their distinctive appearance, evoking the mythical with "wings" and armored body, has earned them cultural curiosity, but they play a subtle role in tropical marine ecosystems as specialized predators of infaunal .

Taxonomy and Etymology

Classification

Pegasidae is classified within the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Actinopterygii, order , suborder Dactylopteroidei, and family Pegasidae. The family was established by in 1831. Phylogenetically, Pegasidae is placed within , a percomorph order that includes families such as (pipefishes and seahorses) in the suborder Syngnathoidei, with Pegasidae forming a to Dactylopteridae (flying gurnards) in Dactylopteroidei based on molecular evidence from ultraconserved elements and other genomic data. Their aberrant morphology, including a heavily armored body and fan-like pectoral fins, contributed to historical misclassifications, such as placement in the order Gasterosteiformes or as a separate order outside in earlier anatomical schemes. The family comprises two genera: Eurypegasus, described by in 1863, and , established by in 1758. The genus Acanthopegasus McCulloch, 1915, is considered a of .

Naming

The family name Pegasidae is derived from the genus Pegasus, which in turn honors , the mythical winged horse from , alluding to the large, wing-like pectoral fins of these fishes that resemble the creature's wings. The genus Pegasus directly references the mythological figure, a divine stallion born from the blood of , symbolizing flight and the sea's origins in ancient lore. In contrast, the genus Eurypegasus combines the Greek prefix eury- meaning "wide" with Pegasus, likely denoting the broader body form relative to species in Pegasus. The genus Pegasus was first established by in his in 1758, initially describing Pegasus volitans as the . The family Pegasidae was formally proposed by in 1831 to encompass these peculiar marine fishes. The second genus, Eurypegasus, was introduced later by in 1863 to accommodate species with distinct morphological traits, such as fewer tail rings.

Description

Anatomy

Pegasidae, commonly known as seamoths, exhibit a distinctive flattened and depressed body form, with species typically measuring up to 18 cm in total length. The body is broad and dorsoventrally compressed, encased in a rigid armor-like composed of thick, fused bony plates that form a scaleless covering the head, trunk, and much of the tail. This structure varies by : Pegasus typically feature 4 pairs of dorsolateral plates and 5 pairs of ventrolateral plates, while Eurypegasus has 3 pairs of dorsolateral and 4 pairs of ventrolateral plates. The fins of Pegasidae are highly specialized. The pectoral fins are large, horizontal, and fan-like or wing-shaped, supported by 10–18 unbranched rays, with the fifth ray often the longest. The pelvic fins are modified into finger-like appendages consisting of one spine and two rays, adapted for locomotion along the substrate. In contrast, the dorsal and anal fins are reduced, each with five rays where the first is the longest and the fifth the shortest, while the caudal has eight rays. These fin configurations reflect their ray-finned nature, with lepidotrichia supporting the fin rays. The head of seamoths features an elongated, tube-like or rod-shaped , or rostrum, formed by fused and varying in length from about 7–29% of the standard length across species, typically longer (21–29%) in than in Eurypegasus. The rostrum overhangs a small, inferior, and protractile adapted for feeding. The eyes are positioned dorsally; in , they are often partially obscured from ventral view by a convex suborbital shelf, while in Eurypegasus the shelf is concave, making the eyes visible ventrally. Internally, the aligns with syngnathiform fishes, including a protrusible upper jaw mechanism that has evolved convergently in several groups, though detailed visceral structures remain less studied. The tapers slenderly and is encircled by 8–14 bony rings, with the anteriormost rings mobile and the posterior ones fused, culminating in paired caudodorsal and caudoventral plates.

Adaptations

The armored of Pegasidae provides protection against predators and abrasion on soft substrates, while the absence of scales facilitates periodic molting of the skin, observed in species such as Eurypegasus draconis as frequently as every few days to remove parasites and debris. The wing-like pectoral fins enable a motion over the seafloor, aiding in evasion and precise maneuvering in benthic habitats, and the modified pelvic fins allow "walking" along muddy or sandy bottoms. The elongated rostrum and protrusible mouth are specialized for probing and sucking small from sediments, enhancing foraging efficiency in their cryptic lifestyle.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The family Pegasidae, commonly known as seamoths, exhibits a widespread distribution across the region, spanning from the and in the west to in the east, and extending northward to southern and southward to . This range encompasses tropical and temperate coastal waters, primarily at depths of up to about 100 meters, though some species occur to over 200 meters, where individuals are typically found on soft substrates such as or . The western boundary is marked by occurrences in the , including the and East African coasts, while the eastern extent reaches Pacific islands like the Marquesas and . Historical records of Pegasidae date back to the , with the genus first described by in 1758 based on specimens from waters. Subsequent explorations expanded knowledge of their distribution, confirming presence across the northwestern Pacific and central Pacific regions. More recent discoveries include the description of Pegasus nanhaiensis in 2020 from the , highlighting ongoing explorations in previously understudied areas within their range. Notable patterns of occur within the family, such as Eurypegasus papilio, which is restricted to the and inhabits deeper waters (80–291 m) compared to most congeners, representing a unique localized distribution amid the broader expanse. This underscores the family's adaptability to isolated oceanic settings while maintaining a predominantly pan-Indo-Pacific presence.

Preferred Environments

Members of the family Pegasidae, commonly known as seamoths, primarily occupy shallow coastal waters in tropical and subtropical regions of the , favoring depths ranging from the to approximately 100 meters, with some species recorded to over 200 meters. They exhibit a strong preference for benthic substrates consisting of sand, mud, silt, or coarser materials like gravel and shell rubble, often associated with beds that provide structural complexity and foraging opportunities. These fishes avoid areas with strong currents, instead selecting sheltered environments such as bays, estuaries, and fringes where soft sediments predominate. Water conditions in their preferred habitats are characterized by tropical to subtropical temperatures between 23°C and 29°C, supporting their metabolic and reproductive needs. Some species demonstrate tolerance for reduced in estuarine settings, allowing occupancy of brackish waters where freshwater influence mixes with marine conditions. Their benthic lifestyle is closely linked to ecosystems like meadows and the fringes of reefs or soft-sediment bays, where infaunal prey such as small crustaceans and polychaetes are abundant. At the microhabitat level, seamoths frequently burrow partially into the sediment for camouflage and protection from predators, blending with the substrate through color changes and their flattened, armored bodies. This behavior positions them in close proximity to invertebrate-rich patches within the sediment, facilitating access to burrowing or epibenthic prey while minimizing exposure in these dynamic coastal environments.

Biology

Locomotion and Feeding

Members of the Pegasidae family, commonly known as seamoths, employ a distinctive form of locomotion suited to their benthic , primarily "walking" across soft substrates using elongated, finger-like pelvic fins that push against the seafloor to propel the body forward. These modified pelvic fins, consisting of a spine and one to three soft rays, allow for precise, ambulatory movements over sand, mud, or seagrass beds. Large, horizontal pectoral fins, with 10 to 18 unbranched rays, function for steering, balance, and brief hovering just above the bottom, facilitating slow and deliberate progression typical of their low-energy lifestyle. Feeding in Pegasidae relies on a specialized mechanism featuring a long, flattened, and highly protrusible formed by fused , paired with a small, inferior, toothless positioned ventrally. This protractile tube-like apparatus enables the to extend the snout rapidly to suck in minute zoobenthos directly from the or burrows, employing an strategy by remaining flattened against the substrate to avoid detection. Prey is primarily captured through , targeting infaunal organisms such as worms and small crustaceans, with no documented instances of piscivory due to the mouth's limitations for handling larger or mobile vertebrate prey. This foraging behavior underscores the family's adaptation to , as their sedentary "walking" and opportunistic feeding minimize exertion while exploiting abundant benthic resources in coastal environments. Observations indicate that seamoths actively hunt along the bottom during periods of low visibility, aligning with their camouflaged, bottom-dwelling habits to reduce predation risk.

Reproduction and Development

Pegasidae exhibit an oviparous reproductive mode with , distinguishing them from their syngnathid relatives that often involve male brooding. Spawning typically occurs in pairs, where males and females rise off the bottom—often at —to release pelagic eggs and into the water column. This has been observed in species such as Pegasus lancifer, where pairs swim vent-to-vent approximately 1 meter above the substrate during the release. Unlike substrate-bound egg deposition in some benthic fishes, the eggs are buoyant and drift pelagically, potentially dispersing larvae over wider areas. The mating system in Pegasidae appears to involve pair bonding, with evidence of in at least one species. In Eurypegasus draconis, observations in the revealed that 95% of individuals were paired, with tagged pairs showing overlapping home ranges and low mobility, suggesting long-term bonds that enhance reproductive success in low-density populations. Spawning is repetitive, occurring multiple times within breeding periods, though specific data remain limited; aquaria studies indicate small batches of eggs per event, consistent with the family's small body size and benthic lifestyle. Breeding timing varies by location but aligns with warmer conditions, such as summer observations in the or winter egg collections in Hawaiian waters. Egg development is rapid, with embryos in 24–29 hours at approximately 27°C in E. draconis. Hatched larvae are pelagic, initially featuring a large and measuring around 2.2 mm in total length, as documented in cultured Eurypegasus papilio. Larval duration lasts about 20 days, during which they feed on small like copepods, undergo flexion, and develop before becoming bottom-oriented. Upon settlement at roughly 4.8 mm, juveniles closely resemble miniature adults, with a compressed, armored body and the onset of features like the rostrum. Growth is swift, reaching adult sizes of 65 mm within 9 months under cultured conditions, implying maturity in 1–2 years in the wild.

Molting and Physiology

Pegasidae, commonly known as seamoths, possess a distinctive molting cycle involving the complete shedding of their skin in one piece every 1 to 5 days. This is facilitated by rapid jumping or jerking movements and strong beats, which enable the fish to detach the old skin, including coverings over the fins and body, resulting in a translucent exuvia. The process primarily serves to eliminate accumulated , parasites, and other epibionts that adhere to their slow-moving, benthic forms, maintaining and preventing encumbrance. The physiological basis for this frequent molting stems from their unique anatomy, where growth occurs within a rigid of fused bony plates that encase the body, precluding typical expansion seen in scaled fishes. Lacking true scales, seamoths depend on repeated epidermal renewal to accommodate incremental body growth and replace the outer layer. Their diet, consisting of protein-rich small benthic such as polychaetes and crustaceans, provides the necessary nutrients to support this ongoing renewal process. Observations in captive rearing indicate that the first molt occurs around 38 days post-hatch, with juveniles reaching approximately 65 mm in total length after 9 months, reflecting indeterminate but slow growth rates characteristic of many syngnathiform fishes.

Species

Genus Eurypegasus

The genus Eurypegasus comprises two of seamoths within the Pegasidae, characterized by more restricted geographic distributions compared to the congeneric Pegasus . These fishes exhibit subtle morphological differences from Pegasus, including fewer tail rings (8–10 versus 11–14) and variations in the fusion of dermal plates forming their armored body. Recent observations remain limited, with sporadic records from trawl and surveys, and no evidence of targeted commercial fisheries. Eurypegasus draconis, known as the short dragonfish or little dragonfish, inhabits tropical Indo-West Pacific waters from the and eastward to the Society and , north to southern , and south to , excluding . This benthic species reaches a maximum length of 10 cm and is distinguished by its dragon-like appearance, featuring prominent spines on the head and armored plates that enhance on sandy or silty bottoms. It is assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN, reflecting its wide distribution and lack of major threats. Eurypegasus papilio, the Hawaiian sea-moth , is endemic to the waters surrounding the , where it occurs at depths of 80–291 m on soft substrates. Growing to a smaller size of up to 8 cm, it displays butterfly-like pectoral fins that aid in its gliding locomotion over the seafloor, with a body coloration of olivaceous to yellow-olive above and whitish below, accented by faint red bands. The species is currently listed as Least Concern on the , though data on population trends remain sparse.

Genus Pegasus

The genus Pegasus encompasses six of seamoths, representing the more diverse and broadly distributed lineage within Pegasidae, spanning the Indo-West Pacific from to the western . Unlike the more localized Eurypegasus, species in Pegasus show considerable morphological variation, particularly in length and ray counts, which aid in species identification and reflect subtle adaptations for benthic existence. These traits include differences in the proportional length of the snout relative to the head and counts of soft rays in the dorsal (typically 5) and anal fins (also typically 5), though interspecific variations occur. Like other members, Pegasus species are armored with fused dermal plates and rely on enlarged pectoral fins for "walking" along substrates. Pegasus volitans, known as the longtail seamoth, has a widespread distribution across the Indo-West Pacific, ranging from Delagoa Bay in eastward to , including the , , , and southern . It features prominent, wing-like pectoral fins held in a "flying" posture during locomotion or display, enhancing its camouflage and maneuverability over sandy or muddy bottoms. Adults reach up to 20 cm in total length and are occasionally captured for the marine aquarium trade, particularly in the . The species is classified as by the IUCN due to insufficient data on population trends and threats. Pegasus tetrabelos, a relatively recently described species, occupies a similar Indo-West Pacific range, primarily off northeastern in and the . It exhibits the dragon-like body form characteristic of seamoths, with a flattened, armored profile and elongated tail. Maximum size is approximately 9.8 cm standard length (around 15 cm total length), and it inhabits soft sediment areas. Assessed as , limited distributional records hinder full evaluation of its status. Pegasus lancifer, the sculptured seamoth, is endemic to the temperate waters of , from southeastern to and . Its most distinctive feature is the elongated, lance-shaped , which protrudes notably beyond the mouth and aids in probing sediments. It grows to 9.1 cm standard length and prefers inshore sandy or silty habitats to depths of 50 m. The IUCN lists it as Least Concern, reflecting stable populations and low threat levels. Pegasus laternarius inhabits the Indo-West Pacific from southern to southern , , and the . Notable for its lantern-like dark markings on the bony armor plates, which provide cryptic coloration against mottled bottoms, it attains 8 cm standard length. This species is benthic on mud or sand and is rated owing to sparse biological and abundance data. Pegasus nanhaiensis, the smallest in the genus, was described in 2020 based on specimens from the northern off . It measures up to 6.2 cm standard length (about 7 cm total) and differs from congeners in shorter snout and fewer tail rings. Endemic to coastal soft sediments in this region, it has not been assessed by the IUCN () due to its recent discovery and lack of comprehensive surveys. Pegasus sinensis, described in 2022 from the off Xiamen Bay, , reaches up to 7.6 cm standard length. It is distinguished by 12 tail rings, a relatively short rostrum (21–26% of SL), and 11 pectoral fin rays, with large dark spots on the body. Currently known only from this locality on soft bottoms, it has not been assessed by the IUCN due to its recent description.

Conservation

Status Assessments

The family Pegasidae includes eight recognized species, six of which have been evaluated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Three species are categorized as Least Concern: Eurypegasus draconis (assessed 2017), Eurypegasus papilio (assessed 2016), and Pegasus lancifer (assessed 2016). The remaining three assessed species are classified as : Pegasus laternarius (assessed 2017), Pegasus volitans (assessed 2016), and Pegasus tetrabelos (assessed 2016). The two unevaluated species are Pegasus nanhaiensis (described in 2020) and Pegasus sinensis (described in 2022). IUCN assessments for these species apply standardized criteria that consider factors such as inferred or projected population reduction trends, extent of (the area containing all known ), area of (the area within the extent of occurrence actually occupied), and ongoing or projected levels of exploitation or habitat decline. The most recent comprehensive IUCN reviews for Pegasidae occurred during the 2010s, with all current assessments dating to 2016 or 2017. Significant monitoring gaps exist for Pegasidae, primarily due to insufficient quantitative data on sizes and trends, exacerbated by the family's benthic and highly cryptic habits that hinder detection during surveys. No species in the family is listed under higher threat categories such as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered. Several Pegasidae species benefit from regional protections within marine protected areas; for instance, all species in the family are designated as protected under the Regulations, which regulate activities to conserve in this area where species like Pegasus volitans occur.

Threats and Protection

Pegasidae, commonly known as seamoths, face primary threats from bycatch in trawling fisheries, particularly in the Indo-Pacific region. In the central Philippines, species such as Pegasus volitans and Eurypegasus draconis are incidentally captured in illegal trawl gear, with landings estimated at 130,000–620,000 P. volitans and 130,000 E. draconis off northwestern Bohol in 1996 alone. These captures contribute to the dried curios trade, where seamoths are processed and sold, exacerbating pressure on low-density populations that may be ill-suited to heavy exploitation. Additionally, the aquarium pet trade targets live specimens, with 43,000–62,000 individuals (predominantly P. volitans) collected annually in a single Philippine province, driven by expanding demand in countries including the Philippines, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Habitat degradation from coastal development and further endangers seamoths, which inhabit shallow benthic environments vulnerable to disturbance and loss of sandy or muddy substrates. Their wide geographic distribution may offer some buffering against localized impacts, but ongoing coastal activities in tropical regions continue to fragment these habitats. Secondary risks include , which could alter tropical marine conditions and affect seamoth distributions through warming waters and , though specific impacts remain uncertain. in estuarine areas, such as from agricultural runoff, poses additional stress to these sedentary . Protection efforts for Pegasidae are limited, with no species currently listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), despite trade concerns. Local fisheries regulations in regions like the Philippines aim to curb illegal trawling, but enforcement remains challenging. In Australia, the entire Pegasidae family is listed as threatened under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act), providing federal safeguards against activities impacting their habitats. Conservation assessments highlight the need for improved population data and monitoring to inform future measures, as current declines reported by fishers underscore the urgency for targeted research and management.

References

  1. https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=154575
  2. https://fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/family/73
  3. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9336449/
  4. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00004630
  5. https://projectseahorse.org/resource/biology-fishery-and-trade-of-sea-moths-pisces-pegasidae-in-the-central-philippines/
  6. https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3
  7. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.02988.x
  8. https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=154575&allchildren=1/1000
  9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347590061_A_new_species_of_Pegasus_Syngnathiformes_Pegasidae_from_the_South_China_Sea
  10. https://etyfish.org/syngnathiformes2/
  11. https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=126459
  12. https://fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/4043
  13. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Eurypegasus-draconis.html
  14. https://fishbase.se/Summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=286
  15. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1443620
  16. https://aiep.pensoft.net/article/78260/
  17. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22496281/
  18. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=286
  19. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Eurypegasus-papilio.html
  20. https://www.fao.org/4/x2400e/x2400e18.pdf
  21. https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.4894.4.2
  22. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Pegasus-volitans.html
  23. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Eurypegasus-draconis
  24. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259362315_Biology_fishery_and_trade_of_sea_moths_Pisces_Pegasidae_in_the_central_Philippines
  25. https://www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/species/seamoth
  26. https://fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/4042
  27. https://www.fishbase.se/Summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=286
  28. https://southafrica.co.za/seamoth.html
  29. https://www.frankbaensch.com/marine-aquarium-fish-culture/my-research/hawaiian-seamoth-culture/
  30. https://fishbase.se/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=4610
  31. https://fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/3201
  32. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0149415
  33. https://fishbase.se/summary/Pegasus-volitans.html
  34. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Pegasus-lancifer
  35. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Pegasus-laternarius
  36. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/16475/1073433
  37. https://fishbase.se/summary/Pegasus-nanhaiensis.html
  38. https://www.iucn-seahorse.org/iucn-global-assessments-1
  39. https://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_reg/gbrmpr2019366/s17.html
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