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Look up than in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Than is a grammatical particle analyzed as both a conjunction and a preposition in the English language. It introduces a comparison and is associated with comparatives and with words such as more, less, and fewer. Typically, it measures the force of an adjective or similar description between two predicates.
Usage
[edit]Case of pronouns following than
[edit]According to the view of many English-language prescriptivists, including influential 18th-century grammarian Robert Lowth, than is exclusively a conjunction and therefore takes either nominative (or subjective) or oblique (or objective) pronouns, depending on context, rather than exclusively oblique pronouns as prepositions do.[1][2] This rule is broken as often as it is observed. For instance, William Shakespeare's 1600 play Julius Caesar has an instance of an oblique pronoun following than where the nominative is also possible:
- A man no mightier than thyself or me...
Likewise, Samuel Johnson wrote:
- No man had ever more discernment than him, in finding out the ridiculous.
In simple comparisons in contemporary English, than often takes an oblique pronoun, which lexicographers and usage commentators regard as prepositional use and as standard.
The case of a pronoun following than can be determined by context. For example:
- You are a better swimmer than she.
- The sentence is equivalent to "You are a better swimmer than she is."
- They like you more than her.
- The sentence is equivalent to "They like you more than they like her."
- The sentence "They like you more than she" may instead mean "They like you more than she likes you."
Confusion between than and then
[edit]In writing, than and then are often erroneously interchanged. In standard English, then refers to time or consequence, while than is used in comparisons.
References
[edit]from Grokipedia
Etymology and History
Origins in Old English
The word "than" derives from the Old English forms þan, þanne, or þonne, which functioned primarily as an adverb or conjunction meaning "then" or "when," but also emerged in comparative contexts following adjectives and adverbs.[4] These Old English variants stem from Proto-West Germanic *þannē, an extension of Proto-Germanic *þan ("at that time, then"), itself rooted in the demonstrative pronoun system. The Proto-Germanic term evolved from Proto-Indo-European *tóm, the accusative singular masculine/neuter form of the demonstrative stem *so- or *to- ("this, that"), which underpinned temporal and locative expressions across early Indo-European languages. In Old English literature, þonne frequently appeared in comparative constructions to denote inequality or superiority, marking a semantic shift from its original temporal sense toward a dedicated comparative role. This usage is well-attested in Anglo-Saxon poetry, where it often followed inflected comparatives to complete phrases of contrast. For instance, in the epic Beowulf, line 69 describes the grandeur of Heorot as "māre þonne yldo bearn æfre gefrunon" ("greater than the children of men ever heard"), emphasizing unparalleled splendor.[6] Another example from lines 43–45 reads "nalæs hi hine læssan lacum teodan... þon þa dydon" ("they did not honor him with fewer gifts... than those did"), comparing tributes paid to a young ruler against earlier ones.[6] Such instances illustrate how þonne, drawn from demonstrative origins, facilitated vivid comparisons in narrative verse, linking abstract qualities like strength or value to concrete precedents.[7] The comparative function of these forms in Old English reflects a broader Germanic pattern, where demonstratives like *þan adapted to express relational differences, paving the way for its specialization in later stages of the language.[4]Development Through Middle and Modern English
In Middle English (c. 1100–1500), the form "than" emerged from Old English variants like "þan" and "þonne," with spellings including than(n)e, then(e), thenne, and þon(e), reflecting regional dialects and ongoing phonetic shifts.[8] This period saw "than" solidify its role primarily as a comparative conjunction introducing clauses after adjectives or adverbs, such as in expressions of degree or preference (e.g., "more than" or "rather than"), often with elliptical constructions where elements like verbs were omitted.[8] Additionally, "than" began exhibiting quasi-prepositional traits, governing noun phrases in comparisons like "further than" or "beyond," marking a transitional flexibility in its grammatical behavior.[8] Geoffrey Chaucer's works exemplify this emerging preposition-like usage in Middle English literature. In The Canterbury Tales, particularly the Nun's Priest's Tale, Chaucer employs "than" in vivid comparisons, such as "His nayles whitter than the lylye flour" (his nails whiter than the lily flower) and "His coomb was redder than the fyn coral" (his comb redder than fine coral), highlighting sensory contrasts that blend conjunctive and prepositional senses to enhance poetic rhythm and imagery.[9] These instances demonstrate how "than" facilitated concise, elliptical expressions in narrative prose, influenced by the period's dialectal synthesis in London's East Midlands variety, which Chaucer helped popularize.[10] During Early Modern English (c. 1500–1700), the introduction of the printing press accelerated the standardization of "than." William Caxton's establishment of England's first press in 1476 promoted the London dialect, fixing spellings like "than" (distinguishing it from "then" around 1700) and disseminating consistent comparative usages across printed texts, which reduced regional variations.[4][11] This technological shift, combined with Renaissance humanism, reinforced "than" in formal comparisons, aligning it with classical models while preserving its Germanic core. Prescriptive grammarians in the 18th and 19th centuries further entrenched "than" in comparative syntax. Lindley Murray's influential English Grammar (1795) classified "than" explicitly as a conjunction in sections on comparisons (e.g., "Of comparisons by the conjunction than or as"), advocating its use to introduce subordinate clauses and promoting elliptical forms for elegance.[12] However, this era sparked debates among grammarians about its dual nature: whether "than" functioned solely as a conjunction (as in Robert Lowth's A Short Introduction to English Grammar, 1762) or also as a preposition governing pronouns, reflecting tensions between descriptive evolution and rigid rules. These discussions, echoed in works by figures like William Ward (1765), who recognized both roles, ultimately solidified "than" as a versatile particle in Modern English without fully resolving its categorial ambiguity.Grammatical Roles
Than as a Comparative Conjunction
In English grammar, "than" primarily serves as a subordinating conjunction in comparative constructions of inequality, linking a main clause to a subordinate clause that specifies the second element of the comparison. This role allows for the expression of differences in degree, quality, or quantity between two entities, as in "She runs faster than he does," where "than" introduces the subordinate clause "he does" to complete the comparison.[13] The conjunction requires a finite verb in the subordinate clause to maintain subject-verb agreement, ensuring the clause parallels the structure of the main clause for syntactic balance.[14] Syntactically, "than" initiates an embedded subordinate clause that typically omits redundant elements from the main clause, promoting conciseness while preserving full clausal integrity. For instance, in "This book is more interesting than that one was," the subordinate clause "that one was" echoes the copular verb and adjective from the main clause, highlighting the comparative adjective "more interesting." In non-elliptical forms, the structure explicitly includes both subject and verb, as in "I earn less than she earns," demonstrating how "than" subordinates the second clause without altering its finite nature. This construction contrasts with simpler phrasal comparisons by enabling complex, clause-level contrasts.[15] The use of "than" as a comparative conjunction traces its origins to Old English, where the form "þonne" functioned similarly to introduce subordinate clauses in comparisons of inequality. In Old English texts, such as those in the Dictionary of Old English Corpus, "þonne" appears in structures like "Iohannes is māra þonne Æðelƿeard" ("John is greater than Athelward"), marking differences in attributes or similes.[16] This subordinating role persisted through Middle English into Modern English, retaining its core function despite phonological shifts from "þonne" to "than."[7] A classic example of its application in elliptical form is "I would rather die than surrender," implying the full subordinate clause "than [I would] surrender," which underscores the conjunction's flexibility in idiomatic expressions.[17] Elliptical uses may superficially resemble prepositional constructions but fundamentally rely on the underlying clausal syntax. In modern linguistic theory, particularly within generative grammar, "than" is often analyzed as a comparative complementizer rather than strictly a conjunction or preposition. This perspective views it as introducing a complementizer phrase (CP) in comparative clauses, paralleling other complementizers like "that." Such analyses highlight its role in embedding subordinate structures and account for phenomena like wh-extraction in comparisons.[18]Than as a Preposition
In English grammar, "than" functions as a preposition when it directly precedes and governs a noun phrase, pronoun, or gerund to form a comparative construction, typically following adjectives, adverbs, or quantifiers such as "more," "less," or "better."[13][19] This prepositional use introduces the object of comparison without requiring a full clause, as in "She is taller than me" or "more than enough."[13] When "than" acts as a preposition, it takes an objective case pronoun, such as "me" or "him," rather than the subjective "I" or "he."[13] The grammaticality of this prepositional role has been debated since the 18th century, when grammarian Bishop Robert Lowth prescribed that "than" should exclusively function as a conjunction, insisting on constructions like "taller than I [am]" to maintain subjective case pronouns.[13] However, this view overlooked "than"'s established prepositional use dating back to the mid-16th century, as evidenced in early texts and supported by contemporaries like William Ward, who recognized both functions.[13] Modern linguistic analysis accepts "than" as a preposition in elliptical comparisons, allowing objective pronouns and reflecting a historical shift toward simplified phrasing in spoken and written English, such as "better than him."[13][19] Representative examples illustrate this usage: "He has more money than sense," where "than" governs the noun "sense"; or "She runs faster than him," employing an objective pronoun in an elliptical form.[19] This prepositional structure contrasts briefly with non-elliptical conjunctional uses but emphasizes phrase-level complements here.[13] Additionally, "than" occasionally operates prepositionally with adverbs or adverbial phrases, as in "other than," meaning "except" or "differently from," as seen in "I have never known him to behave other than selfishly."[19] This extends its comparative role to exclusions or alternatives without altering its core governing function.[19]Common Usage and Errors
Case of Pronouns Following Than
The case of pronouns following "than" in comparative constructions has long been a point of contention in English grammar, pitting prescriptive traditions against descriptive observations of actual usage. Prescriptivists maintain that "than" functions as a subordinating conjunction, introducing an elliptical clause with an implied verb, thus requiring the subjective case for the pronoun, as in "She is taller than I [am]."[20] This rule, rooted in 18th- and 19th-century grammars, treats constructions like "taller than I" as shorthand for a full clause to preserve grammatical parallelism.[20] In contrast, descriptive linguists argue that "than" often behaves as a preposition in modern English, governing an objective pronoun like "me," similar to phrases such as "taller than her" or "different from me."[21] This analysis aligns with syntactic tests, such as wh-questions ("Who(m) is she taller than?") and reflexives ("taller than myself"), where "than" patterns prepositionally rather than conjunctively.[20] Consequently, "She loves you more than me" is increasingly viewed as standard in informal contexts, reflecting natural speaker intuition over rigid formality.[22] Corpus evidence from the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), spanning 1990–2012 with over 464 million words, supports the prevalence of objective forms in elliptical comparisons.[22] Among 5,600 comparative constructions with pronouns, objective cases (e.g., "than me," "than him") account for 22.9% (1,284 instances), dominating spoken and fiction genres (e.g., 268 in spoken texts), while subjective forms without auxiliaries (e.g., "than I") are rarer at 6.9% (388 instances) and more confined to academic writing.[22] This distribution indicates "than me" as the unmarked, preferred choice in everyday American English since the late 20th century, with objective pronouns rising in informal registers as prescriptive influence wanes.[21] For instance, spoken examples like "He runs faster than me" outnumber formal "than I [do]" equivalents, highlighting a shift toward preposition-like treatment.[22]Distinction from Then
The words "than" and "then" are frequently confused in writing due to their phonetic similarity, as both are typically pronounced with the voiced dental fricative /ð/ followed by a short vowel sound, often rendering them as near-homophones in casual American English speech: "than" as /ðæn/ or reduced to /ðən/, and "then" as /ðɛn/.[23][24] This auditory overlap, combined with their similar spelling, leads to persistent substitution errors, particularly among native and non-native speakers alike.[25] "Then" functions primarily as an adverb or conjunction to denote time, sequence, or logical consequence, such as in conditional statements like "if it rains, then we'll stay inside" or temporal references like "back then, life was simpler."[26][27] In these contexts, it indicates progression or a specific point in time, distinguishing it from other temporal markers. By contrast, "than" serves exclusively as a conjunction or preposition in comparative constructions, introducing differences or preferences, as in "she runs faster than he does" or "more than expected."[1][28] A prevalent error involves substituting "then" for "than" in comparative phrases, such as writing "better then" instead of "better than," which disrupts grammatical clarity.[29] Analyses of student writing and online corpora identify this homophone confusion as one of the most recurrent spelling mistakes in English, accounting for a notable portion of mechanical errors in compositions.[25] Such mistakes are amplified in informal digital communication, where phonetic typing prevails over orthographic precision.[30] To aid recall, a widely recommended mnemonic associates "than" with comparison (emphasizing the "a" as in "against" or "as opposed to") and "then" with time (linking the "e" to "event" or "epoch"). This device reinforces the functional divide without relying on etymology. In rare cases involving pronouns after "than," the objective case may apply (e.g., "taller than me"), but this pertains to comparative grammar rather than the homophone distinction itself.[25]Variations and Broader Contexts
Dialectal Differences
In American English, particularly in informal spoken contexts, there is a marked preference for objective pronouns following "than," such as "than me," "than us," or "than them," often in elliptical constructions where the full clause is implied (e.g., "She is taller than me" implying "than I am").[13] This usage reflects a broader trend in vernacular American English, where objective forms are common in casual speech, aligning with patterns in other nonstandard varieties that prioritize natural flow over strict grammatical parallelism.[31] British English, by contrast, shows stronger adherence to subjective pronouns like "than I," "than we," or "than they" in formal writing and edited texts, viewing objective forms as less prestigious.[3] However, informal spoken British English exhibits similar shifts toward objective pronouns, with objective forms occurring more frequently in spoken discourse than in formal writing. This variation underscores a divide between prescriptive norms in written British English and the pragmatic preferences of everyday conversation, though objective usage remains less frequent than in American English. In other English dialects, such as Scottish English and Scots, historical and regional alternatives to "than" appear, including "nor" as a comparative marker (e.g., "He was smaller nor I expected").[32] This form, rooted in older Scots grammar, functions equivalently to "than" in standard English comparatives and persists in nonstandard structures, distinguishing Scottish varieties from southern British English.[33] Similarly, African American Vernacular English (AAVE) consistently favors objective pronouns after "than," mirroring informal American patterns but with additional pronominal regularizations common to vernacular dialects (e.g., "taller than him" without inversion). These patterns illustrate how "than" adapts to dialectal norms, with objective forms and alternatives like "nor" serving as markers of informality or regional identity.Examples in Literature and Idioms
In William Shakespeare's Hamlet (Act 1, Scene 5), the protagonist Hamlet remarks to his friend Horatio, "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, / Than are dreamt of in your philosophy," using "than" to underscore the limits of human knowledge and the existence of mysteries beyond rational comprehension.[34] This comparative structure highlights themes of wonder and the supernatural, embedding irony in the contrast between perceived reality and the unknown. The idiom "easier said than done," which conveys that an action is more challenging to perform than to describe, traces its roots to the late 15th century in texts like Vulgaria, where it appears as "It is easyer to saye than to do."[35] Similarly, "more dead than alive" describes someone in a state of extreme exhaustion or near collapse, employing "than" in a hyperbolic comparison to exaggerate frailty for vivid effect. These expressions integrate comparative forms to create concise, memorable insights into human experience. In 20th-century literature, George Orwell's Animal Farm (Chapter 10) features the satirical line, "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others," where "than" facilitates a paradoxical comparison that critiques totalitarian hypocrisy and unequal power dynamics.[36] Such uses of "than" in proverbs and idioms often amplify irony or exaggeration, as seen in comparative structures that juxtapose ideals against harsh realities to convey cultural wisdom succinctly.[37]References
- https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Old_English/Conjunctions