Umayyad Mosque

The Umayyad Mosque (Arabic: ٱلْجَامِع ٱلْأُمَوِي‎, romanized: al-Jāmiʿ al-Umawī), also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus (Arabic: جَامِع بَنِي أُمَيَّة ٱلْكَبِيْر‎, romanized: Jāmiʿ Banī Umayyah al-Kabīr), located in the old city of Damascus, the capital of Syria, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. Its religious importance stems from the eschatological reports concerning the mosque and historic events associated with it. Christian and Muslim tradition alike consider it the burial place of John the Baptist's head, a tradition originating in the 6th century. Two shrines inside the premises commemorate the Islamic prophet Muhammad's grandson Husayn ibn Ali, whose martyrdom is frequently compared to that of John the Baptist. It is considered to be the oldest mosque still in use in its original form.

The site has been used as a house of worship since the Iron Age, when the Arameans built on it a temple dedicated to their god of rain, Hadad. It was later associated with the Greek god Zeus during the Hellenistic period. Under Roman rule after 64 CE, it was converted into the center of the imperial cult of Jupiter, the Roman god of rain, becoming one of the largest temples in Syria. The current walls of the mosque were the inner walls of the Temple of Jupiter (built in the 1st century BC to 4th century AD). When the empire in Syria transitioned to Christian Byzantine rule, Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395) transformed it into a cathedral and the seat of the second-highest-ranking bishop in the Patriarchate of Antioch.

After the Muslim conquest of Damascus in 634, part of the cathedral was designated as a small prayer house (musalla) for the Muslim conquerors. As the Muslim community grew, the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I (r. 705–715) confiscated the rest of the cathedral for Muslim use, returning to the Christians other properties in the city as compensation. The structure was largely demolished and a grand congregational mosque complex was built in its place. The new structure was built over nine years by thousands of laborers and artisans from across the Islamic and Byzantine empires at considerable expense and was funded by the war booty of Umayyad conquests and taxes on the Arab troops of Damascus. Unlike the simpler mosques of the time, the Umayyad Mosque had a large basilical plan with three parallel aisles and a perpendicular central nave leading from the mosque's entrance to the world's second concave mihrab (prayer niche). The mosque was noted for its rich compositions of marble paneling and its extensive gold mosaics of vegetal motifs, covering some 4,000 square metres (43,000 sq ft), likely the largest in the world.

Under Abbasid rule (750–860), new structures were added, including the Dome of the Treasury and the Minaret of the Bride, while the Mamluks (1260–1516) undertook major restoration efforts and added the Minaret of Qaytbay. The Umayyad Mosque innovated and influenced nascent Islamic architecture by introducing a more organized and monumental design compared to earlier mosques. It enjoyed great prestige throughout its history and was regarded as a "wonder of the world" by many medieval Muslim writers. Although the original structure has been altered several times due to fire, war damage, and repairs, it is one of the few mosques to maintain the same form and architectural features of its 8th-century construction, as well as its Umayyad character.

The site of the Umayyad Mosque is attested as a place of worship since the Iron Age. Damascus was the capital of the Aramaean state Aram-Damascus and a large temple was dedicated to Hadad-Ramman, the god of thunderstorms and rain, and was erected at the site of the present-day mosque. One stone remains from the Aramaean temple, dated to the rule of King Hazael, and is currently on display in the National Museum of Damascus.

The Temple of Hadad-Ramman continued to serve a central role in the city afterwards. Under the rule of the Seleucids in the Hellenistic period, probably in the 2nd century BC, the temple was formally dedicated to the Greek god Zeus, who was assmilated to Haddad-Ramman. After the Roman Empire conquered Damascus in 64 BC, they introduced worship of the equivalent Roman god, Jupiter. Thus, they engaged in a project to reconfigure and expand the temple, probably beginning in the reign of Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD). The later Damascus-born architect Apollodorus may have been involved in the design.

The new Temple of Jupiter became the center of the imperial cult of Jupiter and was served as a response to the Second Temple in Jerusalem. The Temple of Jupiter would attain further additions during the early Roman period, some funded by contributions from individuals. The temple was further renovated and embellished during the reign of Septimius Severus (r. 193–211). The remains of the western propylaeum visible today most likely date from his tme. By the 4th century, the temple was especially renowned for its size and beauty. It was separated from the city by two sets of walls. The first, outer wall spanned a wide area that included a market, and the second inner wall surrounded the actual sanctuary of Jupiter. It was the largest temple in Roman Syria.

In 391, the Temple of Jupiter was converted into a cathedral by the Christian emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395). The church was likely one of the largest of the time.^{[better source needed]} It served as the seat of the Bishop of Damascus, who ranked second within the Patriarchate of Antioch after the patriarch himself.