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Waymo Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid undergoing testing in the San Francisco Bay Area (2017)

Key Information

Waymo LLC, formerly known as the Google Self-Driving Car Project, is an American autonomous driving technology company headquartered in Mountain View, California. It is a subsidiary of Alphabet Inc., Google's parent company. Waymo operates commercial robotaxi services available to the public in Phoenix (Arizona), San Francisco (California), Los Angeles (California),[2] Atlanta (Georgia), and Austin (Texas).[3] Waymo services are available to select passengers on a waitlist in Silicon Valley (California).[4] As of April 2025, it offers over 250,000 paid rides per week, totalling over 1 million miles monthly.[5][6]

Waymo has announced that their services will be expanding in 2026 to more U.S. cities such as: Dallas (Texas),[7] Miami (Florida),[8] Washington, D.C.,[9] and Nashville (Tennessee).[10] Other cities where Waymo has announced interest in eventually opening service include New York City,[11] Seattle,[12] and Denver.[13] Waymo is testing the service in Tokyo, Japan in its first international expansion.[14] City mapping in preparation for potential new services has taken place in various cities in the United States including, Boston, New Orleans, Las Vegas, Philadelphia,[15] San Diego, Orlando, Houston, and San Antonio.[16]

The company traces its origins to the Stanford Racing Team, which competed in the 2005 and 2007 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Grand Challenges.[17] Google's development of self-driving technology began in January 2009,[18][19] led by Sebastian Thrun, the former director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL), and Anthony Levandowski, founder of 510 Systems and Anthony's Robots.[20][21] After almost two years of road testing, the project was revealed in October 2010.[22][23][24] In fall 2015, Google provided "the world's first fully driverless ride on public roads".[25] In December 2016, the project was renamed Waymo and spun out of Google as part of Alphabet.[26] In October 2020, Waymo became the first company to offer service to the public without safety drivers in the vehicle.[27][28][29][30]

Waymo is run by co-CEOs Tekedra Mawakana and Dmitri Dolgov.[31] The company raised US$5.5 billion in multiple outside funding rounds[32] by 2022 and raised $5.6 billion funding in 2024.[33] Waymo has or had partnerships with multiple vehicle manufacturers, including Stellantis,[34] Mercedes-Benz Group AG,[35] Jaguar Land Rover,[36] and Volvo Cars.[37]

History

[edit]

Ground work

[edit]

Google's development of self-driving technology began on January 17, 2009,[19] at Google X lab, run by co-founder Sergey Brin.[18][38] The project was launched at Google by Sebastian Thrun, the former director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) and Anthony Levandowski, founder of 510 Systems and Anthony's Robots.[20][21]

The initial software code and artificial intelligence (AI) design of the effort started before the team worked at Google, when Thrun and 15 engineers, including Dmitri Dolgov, Mike Montemerlo, Hendrik Dahlkamp, Sven Strohband, and David Stavens, built Stanley and Junior, Stanford's entries in the 2005 and 2007 DARPA Challenges. Later, aspects of this technology were used in a digital mapping project for SAIL called VueTool.[39][40][22] In 2007, Google acqui-hired the entire VueTool team to help advance Google's Street View technology.[39][40][23][41]

As part of Street View development, 100 Toyota Priuses[21] were outfitted with Topcon digital mapping hardware developed by 510 Systems.[42][40][21]

In 2008, the Street View team launched project Ground Truth,[43] to create accurate road maps by extracting data from satellites and street views.[44]

Pribot

[edit]

In February 2008, a Discovery Channel producer for the documentary series Prototype This! phoned Levandowski.[40][45] The producer requested to borrow Levandowski's Ghost Rider, the autonomous two-wheeled motorcycle Levandowski's Berkeley team had built for the 2004 DARPA Grand Challenge[17] that Levandowski had later donated to the Smithsonian.[46] Since the motorcycle was not available, Levandowski offered to retrofit a Toyota Prius as a self-driving pizza delivery car for the show.[40]

As a Google employee, Levandowski asked Larry Page and Thrun whether Google was interested in participating in the show. Both declined, citing liability issues.[17] However, they authorized Levandowski to move forward with the project, as long as it was not associated with Google.[40][47] Within weeks Levandowski founded Anthony's Robots to do so.[39] He retrofitted the car with light detection and ranging technology (lidar), sensors, and cameras. The Stanford team behind the Stanley car provided its code base to the project.[17] The ensuing episode depicting Pribot delivering pizza across the San Francisco Bay Bridge under police escort aired in December 2008.[48][20][47][49]

The project success led Google to greenlight Google's self-driving car program in January 2009.[17] In 2011, Google acquired 510 Systems (co-founded by Levandowski, Pierre-Yves Droz and Andrew Schultz), and Anthony's Robots for an estimated US$20 million.[42][39][48][20][50] Levandowski's vehicle and hardware, and Stanford's AI technology and software, became the nucleus of the project.[17]

A Firefly self-driving Waymo car (2017)

Project Chauffeur

[edit]

After almost two years of road testing with seven vehicles, the New York Times revealed the existence of Google's project on October 9, 2010.[22] Google announced its initiative later the same day.[23][24]

Starting in 2010, lawmakers in various states expressed concerns over how to regulate autonomous vehicles. A related Nevada law went into effect on March 1, 2012.[51] Google had been lobbying for such laws.[52][53][54] A modified Prius was licensed by the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) in May 2012.[55] The car was "driven" by Chris Urmson with Levandowski in the passenger seat.[55] This was the first US license for a self-driven car.[51]

In January 2014[56] Google was granted a patent for a transportation service funded by advertising that included autonomous vehicles as a transport method.[57] In late May, Google revealed an autonomous prototype, which had no steering wheel, gas pedal, or brake pedal.[58][59] In December, Google unveiled a Firefly prototype that was planned to be tested on San Francisco Bay Area roads beginning in early 2015.[60][61]

A self-driving car with the previous Google branding (2016)

In 2015, Levandowski left the project. In August 2015, Google hired former Hyundai Motor executive, John Krafcik, as CEO.[62] In fall 2015, Google provided "the world's first fully driverless ride on public roads" in Austin, Texas to Steve Mahan, former CEO of the Santa Clara Valley Blind Center, who was a legally blind friend of principal engineer Nathaniel Fairfield.[25] It was the first entirely autonomous trip on a public road. It was not accompanied by a test driver or police escort.[63] The car had no steering wheel or floor pedals.[64] By the end of 2015, Project Chauffeur had covered more than a million miles.[42]

Google spent $1.1 billion on the project between 2009 and 2015. For comparison, the acquisition of Cruise Automation by General Motors in March 2016 was for $500 million, and Uber's acquisition of Otto in August 2016 was for $680 million.[65]

Waymo

[edit]

In May 2016, Google and Stellantis announced an order of 100 Chrysler Pacifica hybrid minivans to test the self-driving technology.[66] In December 2016, the project changed its name to Waymo and spun out of Google as part of Alphabet.[26] The name was derived from "a new way forward in mobility".[67] In May 2016, the company opened a 53,000-square-foot (4,900 m2) technology center in Novi, Michigan.[68]

In 2017, Waymo sued Uber for allegedly stealing trade secrets.[41] Waymo began testing minivans without a safety driver on public roads in Chandler, Arizona, in October 2017.[69] In 2017, Waymo unveiled new sensors and chips that are less expensive to manufacture, cameras that improve visibility, and wipers to clear the lidar system.[70] At the beginning of the self-driving car program, they used a $75,000 lidar system from Velodyne.[71] In 2017, the cost decreased approximately 90 percent, as Waymo converted to in-house built lidar.[72] Waymo has applied its technology to various cars including the Prius, Audi TT, Fiat Chrysler Pacifica, and Lexus RX450h.[73][74] Waymo partners with Lyft on pilot projects and product development.[75] Waymo ordered an additional 500 Pacifica hybrids in 2017.

Waymo-operated Jaguar I-Pace in San Francisco (2023)

In March 2018, Jaguar Land Rover announced that Waymo had ordered up to 20,000 of its I-Pace electric SUVs at an estimated cost of more than $1 billion.[76][77] In late May 2018, Alphabet announced plans to add up to 62,000 Pacifica Hybrid minivans to the fleet.[78][79] Also in May 2018, Waymo established Huimo Business Consulting subsidiary in Shanghai.[80]

In April 2019, Waymo announced plans for vehicle assembly in Detroit at the former American Axle & Manufacturing plant, bringing between 100 and 400 jobs to the area. Waymo used vehicle assembler Magna to turn Jaguar I-PACE electric SUVs and Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid minivans into Waymo Level 4 autonomous vehicles.[81][82] Waymo subsequently reverted to retrofitting existing models rather than a custom design.[83]

In March 2020, Waymo Via was launched after the company's announcement that it had raised $2.25 billion from investors.[84] In May 2020, Waymo raised an additional $750 million.[85] In July 2020, the company announced an exclusive partnership with auto manufacturer Volvo to integrate Waymo technology.[37][86]

In April 2021, Krafcik was replaced by two co-CEOs: Waymo's COO Tekedra Mawakana and CTO Dmitri Dolgov.[87] Waymo raised $2.5 billion in another funding round in June 2021,[88][89] with total funding of $5.5 billion.[32] Waymo launched a consumer testing program in San Francisco in August 2021.[90][91]

In May 2022, Waymo started a pilot program seeking riders in downtown Phoenix, Arizona.[90][91] In May 2022, Waymo announced that it would expand the program to more areas of Phoenix.[92] In 2023, coverage of the Waymo One area was increased by 45 square miles (120 km2), expanding to include downtown Mesa, uptown Phoenix, and South Mountain Village.[93][94][95]

In June 2022, Waymo announced a partnership with Uber, under which Waymo will integrate its autonomous technology into Uber's freight truck service.[96] Plans to expand the program to Los Angeles were announced in late 2022.[97] On December 13, 2022, Waymo applied for the final permit necessary to operate fully autonomous taxis, without a backup driver present, within the state of California.[98]

In January 2023, The Information reported that Waymo staff were among those affected by Google's layoffs of around 12,000 workers. TechCrunch reported that Waymo was set to kill its trucking program.[99]

In July 2024, Waymo began testing its sixth-generation robotaxis which are based on electric vehicles by Chinese automobile company Zeekr, developed in a partnership first announced in 2021.[100][101] They were anticipated to reduce costs, at a time when Waymo was operating at a loss.[100]

In October 2024, Waymo closed a $5.6 billion funding round led by Alphabet, aimed at expanding its robotaxi services, bringing its total capital to over $11 billion.[33] Around that time, the New York Times described Waymo as being "far ahead of the competition", in particular after Cruise had to suspend its operations after an accident in 2023.[100]

Services

[edit]

In 2017, Waymo highlighted four specific business uses for its autonomous tech: robotaxis, trucking and logistics, urban public transportation, and passenger cars.[102]

Robotaxis

[edit]
Waymo service areas in the United States
The interior of a Waymo Jaguar I-Pace robotaxi as it autonomously drives through San Francisco
Service areas in the United States
State Metro area Status Launch date Area served[103] Ref.
Arizona Phoenix Full commercial service October 8, 2020
List
 [104]
California Los Angeles Full commercial service November 12, 2024
List
 [105]
San Francisco Full commercial service June 25, 2024
List
 [106]
Silicon Valley Waitlist service —
List
 [4]
Colorado Denver Announced — — [13]
Florida Miami Announced 2026 — [8]
Georgia Atlanta Full commercial service with Uber June 24, 2025
List
 [107]
New York New York Announced — — [108]
Tennessee Nashville Announced 2026 — [10]
Texas Austin Full commercial service with Uber March 4, 2025
List
 [109]
Dallas Announced 2026 — [7]
Washington Seattle Announced — — [12]
Washington, D.C. Announced 2026 — [9]
Airport service in the United States
State Airport Status Launch date Ref.
Arizona Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport Full commercial service November 1, 2022 [110]
California San Francisco International Airport Announced — [111]
San Jose International Airport Announced Late 2025 [112]
Service areas in Japan
City Status Launch date Ref.
Tokyo Announced 2026 [113]
Service areas in the United Kingdom
Country City Status Launch date Ref.
England London Announced 2026 [114]

Public transit

[edit]

In September 2025, Waymo and the city of Chandler, Arizona announced that Waymo would be integrated into Chandler's public microtransit service.[115]

Trucking and delivery

[edit]

Waymo Via launched in 2020 to work with OEMs to get its technology into vehicles.[116][84][117] The company is testing Class 8 tractor-trailers[118] in Atlanta,[118] and southwest shipping routes across Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.[116] The company operates a trucking hub in Dallas, Texas.[119] It is partnering with Daimler to integrate autonomous technology into a fleet of Freightliner Cascadia trucks.[120]

Waymo operates 48 Class 8 autonomous trucks with safety drivers.[121] In 2023 Waymo issued a joint application along with Aurora Innovation to the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration for a five-year exemption from rules that require drivers to place reflective triangles or a flare around a stopped tractor-trailer truck, to avoid needing human drivers, in favor of warning beacons mounted on the truck cab.[122]

Waymo tested its technology in commercial delivery vehicles with United Parcel Service.[123][124] In July 2020 Waymo and Stellantis expanded their partnership, including the development of Ram ProMaster delivery vehicles.[125]

Waymo has partnered with Uber Eats and DoorDash to deliver food.[126][127]

Technology

[edit]
A Lexus RX450h retrofitted by Google for its self-driving car project (2012)

Google has invested heavily in matrix multiplication and video processing hardware such as the Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) to augment Nvidia's graphics processing units (GPUs) and Intel central processing units (CPUs).[128] Much of this is kept as trade secrets, but transformer technology is likely involved.[129]

Waymo manufactures a suite of self-driving hardware developed in-house.[130] This includes sensors and hardware-enhanced vision system, radar, and lidar.[34][130] Sensors give 360-degree views while lidar detects objects up to 300 metres (980 ft) away.[34] Short-range lidar images objects near the vehicle, while radar is used to see around other vehicles and track objects in motion.[34]

Riders push a button to "start ride,” and have optional "help", "lock", and “pull over" buttons, if needed. The ride usually completes without pressing any button after starting the ride. The car’s steering wheel turns as the car makes turns, and a passenger may sit in the right-front passenger seat, if desired. Passengers see on a screen some of what the car’s sensors see, including pedestrians.[citation needed]

Waymo's deep-learning architecture VectorNet predicts vehicle trajectories in complex traffic scenarios. It uses a graph neural network to model the interactions between vehicles and has demonstrated state-of-the-art performance on several benchmark datasets for trajectory prediction.[131]

Waymo Carcraft is a virtual world in which Waymo simulates driving conditions.[132][133] The simulator was named after the video game World of Warcraft.[132][133] With Carcraft, 25,000 virtual self-driving cars navigate through models of Austin, Texas; Mountain View, California; Phoenix, Arizona, and other cities.[132]

As of 2024, Waymo's fifth-generation robotaxis were based on customized Jaguar I-Pace electric vehicles that according to Dolgov adds up to $100,000 to vehicle costs.[100] Other costs include technicians that monitor rides, service personnel, and real estate for storing and charging the vehicles.[100]

A 6th generation Waymo Driver (Zeekr RT)

Road testing

[edit]
A Toyota Prius modified to operate as a Google driverless car, navigating a test course[134] (2011)

In 2009, Google began testing its self-driving cars in the San Francisco Bay Area.[135]

By December 2013, Nevada, Florida, California, and Michigan had passed laws permitting autonomous cars.[136] A law proposed in Texas allowed testing.[137][138]

In June 2015, Waymo announced that their vehicles had driven over 1,000,000 mi (1,600,000 km) and that in the process they had encountered 200,000 stop signs, 600,000 traffic lights, and 180 million other vehicles.[139] Prototype vehicles were driving in Mountain View.[140] Speeds were limited to 25 mph (40 km/h) and had safety drivers aboard.[141] Google took its first driverless ride on public roads in October 2015, when Mahan took a 10-minute ride around Austin in a Google "pod car" with no steering wheel or pedals.[142] Google expanded its road-testing to Texas, where regulations did not prohibit cars without pedals or a steering wheel.[143]

In 2016, road testing expanded to Phoenix and Kirkland, Washington, which has a wet climate.[144] As of June 2016, Google had test driven its fleet of vehicles in autonomous mode a total of 1,725,911 mi (2,777,585 km).[145] In August 2016 alone, their cars traveled a "total of 170,000 miles; of those, 126,000 miles were autonomous (i.e., the car was fully in control)".[146]

In 2017, Waymo reported a total of 636,868 miles covered by the fleet in autonomous mode, and the associated 124 disengagements, for the period from December 1, 2015, through November 30, 2016.[147] In November Waymo altered its Arizona testing by removing safety drivers.[34] The cars were geofenced within a 100-square-mile (260 km2) region surrounding Chandler, Arizona.[34]

In 2017, Waymo began testing its level 4 cars in Arizona to take advantage of good weather, simple roads, and permissive laws with minimal disclosure requirements.[34]

In 2017, Waymo began testing in Michigan.[102] Also, in 2017, Waymo unveiled its Castle test facility in Central Valley, California. Castle, a former airbase, has served as the project's training course since 2012.[34]

In March 2018, Waymo announced its plans for experiments with the company's self-driving trucks delivering freight to Google data centers in Atlanta, Georgia.[148] In October 2018, the California Department of Motor Vehicles issued a permit for Waymo to operate cars without safety drivers. Waymo was the first company to receive a permit for day and night testing on public roads and highways. Waymo announced that its service would include Mountain View, Sunnyvale, Los Altos, and Palo Alto.[149][150] In July 2019, Waymo received permission to transport passengers.[151]

In December 2018, Waymo launched Waymo One, transporting passengers. The service used safety drivers to monitor some rides, with others provided in select areas without them. In November 2019, Waymo One became the first autonomous service worldwide to operate without safety drivers.[152][153][154]

By January 2020, Waymo had completed twenty million miles (32,000,000 km) of driving on public roads.[155][156]

In August 2021, a commercial Waymo One test service started in San Francisco, beginning with a "trusted tester" rollout.[157]

In March 2022, Waymo began offering rides for Waymo staff in San Francisco without a driver.[158]

As of October 2024, Waymo was offering 100,000 paid rides per week across its Phoenix, San Francisco, and Los Angeles markets.[159]

In December 2024, Waymo announced its first international expansion with testing in Tokyo, Japan in the neighborhoods of Shinjuku, Shibuya, Minato, Chiyoda, Chūō, Shinagawa, and Kōtō in partnership with Nihon Kotsu and Japan's GO taxi app.[160]

As of March 2025, Waymo was offering 200,000 paid rides per week in its existing markets, including Phoenix, San Francisco and Los Angeles.[5]

In March 2025, Waymo expanded its commercial robotaxi services to Silicon Valley and Austin, Texas. The Silicon Valley rollout included Mountain View, Palo Alto, Los Altos, and parts of Sunnyvale, marking the company’s first official service in the region.[5] Meanwhile, in Austin, Waymo partnered with Uber, allowing riders to hail its self-driving vehicles through the Uber app.[161] The expansion is part of Waymo’s broader growth strategy, as the company continues scaling its autonomous ride-hailing operations. On March 25, Waymo announced it will launch a commercial robotaxi service in Washington D.C. in 2026, pending regulatory approval.[162]

As of April 2025, Waymo’s robotaxi program was testing in Miami.[8][163] In Tokyo, Waymo is launching its preparatory testing in Minato, Shinjuku, Shibuya, Chiyoda, Chūō, and Kōtō.[14] And in Atlanta, Waymo has announced its intent to launch robotaxi services during summer 2025.[164]

In August 2025, New York City has allowed Waymo to test up to eight of its vehicles in Manhattan and the downtown area of Brooklyn in a pilot program expected to run until late September.[165][166][167]

Incidents and controversies

[edit]

Accidents

[edit]

As of September 15, 2025, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has logged 1,267 accidents involving Waymo vehicles in autonomous mode, of which only a small minority result in injury or property damage.[168] As of June 2025, Waymo has had 80% fewer injury-causing crashes than human drivers over the same distance driven, 79% fewer airbag-deployment crashes, and 91% fewer serious-injury-or-worse crashes, according to its own analysis.[169]

As of July 31, 2024, Waymo has never been found liable for bodily injury.[170]

In May 2024, the NHTSA launched an investigation into potential flaws in Waymo vehicles, focusing on 31 incidents that included Waymo vehicles ramming into a closing gate, driving on the wrong side of the road, and at least 17 crashes or fires.[171] The investigation was closed in July 2025 with no action taken.[172]

List of notable Waymo accidents:

  • On May 5, 2022, a Waymo Via truck was being passed by another truck, when the other truck encountered debris in its lane and moved into the Waymo's lane, hitting the Waymo and injuring the Waymo test driver.[173]
  • On May 21, 2023, a Waymo hit and killed a dog which ran out into the street in front of the Waymo.[174]
  • On November 3, 2023, a red-light runner hit a Waymo, and then hit pedestrians on the sidewalk of the intersection; this was the first serious-injury crash involving Waymo.[175]
  • On December 11, 2023, two Waymo cars hit a tow truck minutes apart from each other; Waymo recalled its software in response.[176]
  • On February 6, 2024, a Waymo hit and injured a cyclist who was obstructed behind an oncoming truck.[177]
  • On May 21, 2024, a Waymo hit a utility pole; Waymo recalled its software in response.[178]
  • On July 6, 2024, a cyclist was hospitalized after touching a Waymo and then falling; it is unknown whether the act was intentional.[179]
  • On December 27, 2024, a Waymo collided with a delivery robot.[180]
  • On January 19, 2025, a Waymo was stopped in a line of cars when a speeding driver rear-ended the line, killing a passenger in another car; this was the first fatal crash involving Waymo.[181]
  • On February 6, 2025, three Waymo passengers were hospitalized after a hit and run by a human driver.[182]
  • On February 16, 2025, a cyclist was hospitalized after being doored by a Waymo passenger; the cyclist sued Waymo, alleging that it had stopped in an unsafe location and failed to warn the passengers before exiting.[183]
  • On July 30, 2025, two Waymos collided in a parking lot at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport.[184]
  • On September 14, 2025, a motorcyclist was killed after rear-ending a Waymo and then being struck by a human driver.[185]

Opposition from local governments

[edit]

In 2024, the city attorney of San Francisco attempted to sue to prevent expansion of driverless vehicles including Waymo into San Francisco.[186] San Mateo County government soon after also sent a letter to regulators opposing expansion to its county.[187]

In July 2025, anti-Waymo protestors in Boston were joined by city officials, who expressed concerns over safety and the impact on rideshare drivers.[188]

Vandalism

[edit]

In 2023, the San Francisco group Safe Street Rebel used a practice called "coning" to trap Waymo and Cruise cars with traffic cones as a form of protest after claiming that the cars had been involved in hundreds of incidents.[189]

During the 2024 Lunar New Year in San Francisco Chinatown, a mob of vandals attacked, graffitied, and set fire to a Waymo car. No one was injured.[190][191]

In 2024, a pair of Waymo passengers described an attack by an onlooker who attempted to cover the car's sensors.[192]

During the June 2025 Los Angeles protests, several Waymo cars were set on fire. Officials including California Governor Gavin Newsom and Los Angeles Mayor Karen Bass condemned the destruction, attributing it to extremists infiltrating otherwise-peaceful protests. Use of Waymo camera footage by police has been cited as a possible reason for the targeting of Waymo cars.[193]

Trade-secret disputes

[edit]

Waymo LLC v. Uber Technologies, Inc. et al.

[edit]

In February 2017, Waymo sued Uber and its subsidiary self-driving trucking company, Otto, alleging trade secret theft and patent infringement. The company claimed that three ex-Google employees, including Anthony Levandowski, had stolen trade secrets, including thousands of files, from Google before joining Uber.[194] The alleged infringement was related to Waymo's proprietary lidar technology,[195][196] Google accused Uber of colluding with Levandowski.[197] Levandowski allegedly downloaded 9 gigabytes of data that included over a hundred trade secrets; eight of which were at stake during the trial.[198][199]

An ensuing settlement gave Waymo 0.34% of Uber stock,[194] the equivalent of $245 million. Uber agreed not to infringe Waymo's intellectual property.[200] Part of the agreement included a guarantee that "Waymo confidential information is not being incorporated in Uber Advanced Technologies Group hardware and software."[201] In statements released after the settlement, Uber maintained that it received no trade secrets.[202] In May, according to an Uber spokesman, Uber had fired Levandowski, which resulted in the loss of roughly $250 million of his equity in Uber, which almost exactly equaled the settlement.[194] Uber announced that it was halting production of self-driving trucks through Otto in July 2018, and the subsidiary company was shuttered.[203]

California disclosure dispute

[edit]

In January 2022, Waymo sued the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) to prevent data on driverless crashes from being released to the public. Waymo maintained that such information constituted a trade secret.[204] According to The Los Angeles Times, the "topics Waymo wants to keep hidden include how it plans to handle driverless car emergencies, what it would do if a robot taxi started driving itself where it wasn't supposed to go, and what constraints there are on the car's ability to traverse San Francisco's tunnels, tight curves and steep hills."[205]

In February 2022, Waymo was successful in preventing the release of robotaxi safety records. A Waymo spokesperson claimed that the company would be transparent about its safety record.[206]

Other notable incidents

[edit]
  • In 2021, it was noted that Waymo cars kept routing through the Richmond District of San Francisco, with up to 50 cars each day driving to a dead end street before turning around.[207]
  • In June 2023, KGO-TV posted a video of a journalist taking a ride in a Waymo vehicle, which stopped at a green light and dropped the journalist at the wrong stop twice, despite support intervention.[208]
  • In August 2024, residents of San Francisco's SoMa district began to complain about noise pollution from Waymo vehicles honking at each other in a local parking lot. Residents reported that the car horns could be heard daily, with varying levels of activity, usually peaking at around 4 AM and during evening rush hour. The honking appears to have been triggered by the self-driving cars backing in and out of the lot.[209] The story caught attention after a resident began live streaming the cars with lofi hip hop music. Since then, Waymo Director of Product & Ops, Vishay Nihalani has appeared on the live stream to apologize and offer an explanation. Nihalani has assured locals that the honking will be fixed as further software updates are implemented.[210]
  • In December 2024, a Waymo car drove in circles around a parking lot with a passenger inside, which took several minutes to resolve remotely. Waymo claims to have fixed the issue.[211][212][213]
  • In April 2025, a Waymo car got stuck in a drive-thru.[214][215][216]
  • In April 2025, a Waymo passenger reported being trapped in the car after it drove the wrong way and stopped in the middle of the road. According to Waymo, one of the passengers pressed the "pull over" button, and the passengers could have unlocked the doors by pulling twice.[217][218][219]
  • In September 2025, police in San Bruno, California pulled over a Waymo after it made an illegal U-turn.[220][221][222]
  • In September 2025, a Waymo in Atlanta was recorded illegally passing a stopped school bus. Georgia State Representative Clint Crowe and State Senator Rick Williams criticized Waymo, with Williams stating his support for higher fines for self-driving cars.[223][224][225] In response, the NHTSA opened an investigation into Waymo.[226]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Waymo

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Waymo LLC is an American autonomous driving technology company headquartered in , and a subsidiary of , dedicated to developing and deploying fully autonomous vehicles for ride-hailing and logistics applications. It originated from the initiated in 2009 and was restructured as an independent entity in 2016. The company provides ride-hailing robotaxi services and autonomous trucking initiatives, having achieved operational scale with over 100 million fully autonomous miles driven on public roads by mid-2025 and more than 10 million paid rider-only trips across cities including , , and .

Origins and History

Early Research Foundations

The foundations of Waymo's autonomous vehicle technology trace to Google's Self-Driving Car Project, initiated in early 2009 under the internal name Project Chauffeur. The effort stemmed from interest in advancing machine perception and path planning, building on academic and competitive demonstrations of feasibility in unstructured environments. , a Stanford computer science professor with experience from the DARPA Grand Challenges, led the project alongside engineers including Dmitri Dolgov and Anthony Levandowski. Google co-founders and challenged the team to demonstrate viability by achieving 100,000 miles of autonomous driving. Early development emphasized iterative testing on public roads, beginning with modified vehicles operated under safety drivers in the San Francisco Bay Area by late 2009. This phase focused on data collection to refine algorithms for real-world scenarios, laying the groundwork for expanded project operations.

Google Self-Driving Car Project

The Google Self-Driving Car Project operated as a research and development program within Google X, the company's innovation laboratory, with the core goal of creating fully autonomous vehicles capable of operating on public roads without human intervention. Initial testing utilized modified vehicles equipped with custom sensor arrays, including , radar, and cameras, to enable environmental perception and vehicle control. The program evolved its primary platform to Lexus RX 450h SUVs, featuring a spinning lidar dome for 360-degree sensing up to 300 meters, alongside advancements in high-definition mapping, machine learning-based object detection, redundant safety systems, and algorithms supporting maneuvers such as lane changes, traffic signal recognition, and pedestrian avoidance. A major turning point came with public disclosure in October 2010, when Google executive chairman announced successful autonomous drives across California routes, including urban and highway environments, without software-attributable accidents. The project subsequently expanded testing to states like and , obtaining legislative exemptions for driverless operations, and grew its fleet while prioritizing end-to-end autonomy over incremental driver-assistance systems. Engineering efforts emphasized software reliability and iterative improvements from real-world data, distinguishing the initiative as a pioneer in comprehensive self-driving technology.

Transition to Waymo

On December 13, 2016, announced the creation of Waymo LLC as an independent subsidiary dedicated to advancing and commercializing autonomous vehicle technology, rebranding and restructuring the Google Self-Driving Car Project that had operated within Google X since 2009. The move marked a shift from internal research and development toward broader market applications, including ride-hailing services and potential licensing deals, following the accumulation of over 2 million autonomous miles driven. The spin-off enabled Waymo to operate with greater autonomy from core businesses, facilitating partnerships with automakers to integrate its self-driving systems into production vehicles, such as minivans in testing fleets. was appointed CEO to lead efforts emphasizing scalable deployment over experimental initiatives. This separation addressed the project's maturation beyond exploratory structure, allowing focused investment in hardware, software, and regulatory navigation for real-world operations, positioning Waymo to compete in autonomous mobility markets distinct from consumer products.

Key Milestones and Expansions (2016–2025)

  • In December 2016, announced Waymo as a standalone subsidiary focused on advancing self-driving technology.
  • In April 2017, Waymo initiated its Early Rider Program in the Phoenix metropolitan area.
  • On December 5, 2018, Waymo launched Waymo One, the first commercial autonomous ride-hailing service, in Phoenix suburbs.
  • In October 2020, Waymo expanded its Phoenix service to fully driverless rides available to the general public.
  • In 2021, Waymo began limited driverless operations in San Francisco.
  • In 2023, Waymo began limited driverless operations in Los Angeles.
  • On September 13, 2024, Waymo announced an expanded partnership with .
  • In April 2025, Waymo formed a strategic collaboration with .
  • On May 5, 2025, Waymo partnered with to establish an autonomous vehicle manufacturing facility.
  • In May 2025, Waymo achieved 10 million paid fully autonomous rides.
  • In November 2025, Waymo began operations in and expanded services to include freeway travel in the .
  • In December 2025, Waymo began autonomous testing in .

Technology and Engineering

Sensor Suite and Hardware

Waymo's autonomous vehicles utilize a multi-modal sensor suite fusing data from , cameras, , and auxiliary sensors. The system, known as the Waymo Driver—Waymo's fully autonomous driving system comprising integrated sensors, software, and algorithms that enable complete vehicle control from pickup to destination—has evolved through generations, with the sixth-generation hardware introduced in August 2024 featuring 13 cameras, 4 lidars, 6 radars, and external audio receivers (EARs) to optimize performance while reducing costs. This configuration provides 360-degree coverage, with lidars generating high-resolution 3D point clouds, cameras delivering visual details including color and texture, and radars offering velocity and all-weather detection resilient to occlusion by rain or fog. Lidars form the core of Waymo's sensor hardware, employing custom solid-state designs developed in-house to replace earlier mechanical spinning units. This in-house development strategy transitioned from reliance on external suppliers like Velodyne to full self-manufacturing, achieving over 90% cost reductions and establishing as a core competency for optimizing performance, cost, and safety redundancy. The fifth-generation suite, deployed from 2020, included multiple lidars such as a forward-facing long-range unit for distant obstacle detection up to hundreds of meters and perimeter lidars positioned at vehicle sides for close-range blind-spot coverage with zero minimum range. The sixth generation consolidates to four lidars, maintaining comprehensive coverage while enhancing resolution and signal processing. These sensors operate by emitting laser pulses and measuring returns to construct precise 3D representations. Cameras provide high-resolution imagery, with the sixth-generation setup using 13 units for panoramic views extending to 500 meters in optimal conditions. Earlier iterations featured up to 29 cameras in some configurations, but refinements prioritize redundancy and low-light performance through advanced image signal processing. complement optical sensors with capabilities for relative motion estimation, featuring six units in the latest hardware to detect objects in adverse weather. Auxiliary hardware includes for vehicle dynamics, for coarse positioning, and onboard compute platforms with server-grade and to process sensor data in real-time. The custom architecture supports scalability across vehicle platforms, from passenger robotaxis to trucking applications, with hardware costs for the fifth-generation sensors estimated at around $12,700 per vehicle in 2024 analyses. External audio receivers in the sixth generation add auditory cues for events like emergency sirens. This integrated suite prioritizes redundancy and fault tolerance.

Perception and Mapping Systems

Waymo's perception system processes multimodal sensor data using to detect, classify, and track objects in the vehicle's environment, enabling safe navigation. The system fuses inputs from , cameras, and to construct a comprehensive understanding of surroundings, including static infrastructure and dynamic actors. High-definition (HD) maps encode vectorized representations of permanent road features, including lane boundaries, intersections, speed limits, and traffic controls, built from aggregated lidar scans by dedicated mapping fleets. These maps serve as contextual priors, informing perception by distinguishing expected static elements from anomalies detected via live sensors. Operational vehicles continuously validate and update HD maps by flagging discrepancies, such as new construction or signage changes, which trigger automated fleet-wide corrections or human-reviewed permanent revisions, ensuring map fidelity across over 25 U.S. cities. Localization algorithms combine HD map geometry with sensor data for sub-meter pose estimation, robust to GPS outages in dense urban areas. Waymo achieves high reliability in geofenced cities through its multi-sensor suite and detailed HD maps, minimizing errors in parking, pedestrian interactions, or unmapped changes. This mapping-perception synergy enhances object detection accuracy, as map priors constrain sensor interpretations—for instance, anticipating pedestrian crosswalks—and supports downstream planning by providing reliable environmental priors. Waymo's Perception Dataset, part of the Waymo Open Dataset released in 2019 and updated since, offers labeled lidar, radar, and camera data from 2,030 segments to benchmark and advance these systems.

Decision-Making and Control Algorithms

Waymo's decision-making process relies on a modular pipeline that integrates prediction of other road users' behaviors, trajectory planning, and low-level control execution to ensure safe and efficient autonomous operation. The prediction subsystem employs probabilistic machine learning models to forecast multi-agent trajectories, drawing from extensive real-world data in the Waymo Open Dataset, which includes over 1,950 segments of urban driving captured via LiDAR, radar, and cameras. A notable example is MotionDiffuser, a diffusion-based model that generates controllable joint distributions of future trajectories for multiple agents, allowing the system to simulate diverse scenarios such as lane changes or pedestrian crossings with improved accuracy over traditional Gaussian mixture methods. Planning algorithms then synthesize these predictions with high-definition maps, traffic rules, and vehicle dynamics to select and optimize trajectories, including handling non-functional traffic lights by treating dark signals as four-way stops, where vehicles come to a complete stop to assess intersection safety before proceeding; this safety programming can result in extended stationary periods during widespread power outages, as observed in the December 2025 San Francisco blackout. This hierarchical framework typically involves discrete high-level decisions—such as yielding, merging, or overtaking—followed by continuous optimization to minimize costs related to time, comfort, and safety margins, often using sampling techniques like Monte Carlo methods to evaluate thousands of candidate paths in real-time. Risk assessment is embedded throughout, prioritizing collision avoidance by computing probabilistic buffers around predicted obstacles and adhering to conservative decision thresholds validated through millions of simulated miles. Control systems translate approved trajectories into actuator commands for steering, acceleration, and braking, employing advanced feedback mechanisms to achieve smooth, human-like maneuvers even in dense traffic. Waymo's motion control incorporates (MPC) variants tailored for longitudinal and lateral dynamics, enabling precise tracking with latencies under 100 milliseconds while adapting to road irregularities and external perturbations. Recent advancements, such as the EMMA foundation model, explore end-to-end integration of multimodal data for enhanced decision-making, fine-tuned on driving-specific tasks to incorporate broader world knowledge without fully supplanting modular verification layers. This hybrid approach balances data-driven flexibility with rule-based safeguards.

Vehicle Platforms and Fleet

Waymo's vehicle platforms have evolved from hybrid sedans and SUVs in its early testing phases to all-electric crossovers and purpose-built autonomous vehicles in its commercial operations. The initial platforms, inherited from the Google Self-Driving Car Project, included modified hybrids and Lexus RX450h SUVs, which facilitated over 10 million miles of autonomous driving data collection by 2015 through sensor retrofits and custom software integration. In December 2016, Waymo unveiled its first fully self-driving Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid minivans, resulting from a partnership with Fiat Chrysler Automobiles that initially produced 100 units optimized for the company's sensor suite and computing hardware. This platform expanded significantly, with Waymo ordering up to 62,000 Pacifica Hybrids by 2018 for scaled testing and early ride-hailing in Phoenix, though fewer than 1,000 were ultimately deployed before the fleet's phase-out in 2023 amid a strategic pivot to electric vehicles. Waymo's current robotaxi fleet, as of May 2025, comprises over 1,500 all-electric Jaguar I-PACE SUVs retrofitted with the fifth-generation Waymo Driver hardware, enabling unsupervised ride-hailing services in cities including Phoenix, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Austin. The company operates a dedicated U.S. integration facility to equip thousands more I-PACEs, aiming to exceed 3,500 vehicles by the end of 2026 through domestic manufacturing partnerships. Transitioning to next-generation platforms, the shift to cheaper architectures like the Zeekr RT—a purpose-built robotaxi from Geely's Zeekr subsidiary featuring base vehicle costs estimated at $40,000–75,000 plus $10,000–20,000 for sensors—has reduced total per-vehicle costs below $100,000 from approximately $150,000–250,000 for older Jaguar I-PACE models, improving unit economics and enabling faster fleet scaling. Waymo began deploying Zeekr RT electric MPVs integrated with the sixth-generation Waymo Driver—in testing fleets in Seattle and Denver in September 2025, with broader rollout planned for commercial services thereafter. In January 2026, Waymo unveiled the Ojai robotaxi van, a Zeekr RT-based vehicle imported to the US and retrofitted at its Arizona facility with sixth-generation hardware comprising 13 cameras, 6 radars, and 4 LiDARs. The Ojai features no steering wheel or pedals, true 5-person seating, and sensor cleaning systems including heaters, wipers, and sprayers; public rides are planned to start in 2026, subject to NHTSA exemption approvals. Separately, an October 2024 agreement with Hyundai will introduce Hyundai IONIQ 5 SUVs equipped with the sixth-generation Waymo Driver, with on-road manual testing commencing in San Francisco in November 2025, followed by integration into Waymo One operations. These shifts prioritize electric architectures for improved efficiency, reduced maintenance, and alignment with urban ride-hailing demands.

Operations and Services

Ride-Hailing Robotaxis

!Waymo [Jaguar I-PACE robotaxi in San Francisco](./assets/Waymo_Jaguar_I-Pace_in_San_Francisco_2023_dllu.jpg) Waymo One operates as the company's commercial autonomous ride-hailing service, offering fully driverless rides to public passengers via the Waymo One mobile app (available for and Android), where users create an account, enter a destination, and request a ride; no street hailing is available. The service launched in , in December 2018 with safety drivers, transitioning to fully autonomous operations without human intervention in October 2020. It operates fully driverless without safety personnel in multiple U.S. cities, including , (where public rides began in 2021), (fully driverless by March 2024), and , through partnerships, with expansions to and commencing in late 2025. The service provides full autonomy in areas like Metro . In 2025, Waymo One completed over 14 million trips, more than tripling the previous year's volume, and achieved approximately 450,000 weekly paid rides, marking records for commercial robotaxi scale.

Autonomous Trucking Initiatives

Waymo launched its autonomous trucking program under the Waymo Via division in 2017, targeting hub-to-hub freight transport with retrofitted Class 8 tractor-trailers equipped with self-driving hardware and software optimized for highway environments. Initial testing occurred in Arizona, culminating in the first driverless truck deliveries in 2019 on routes between warehouses. The system featured custom lidar for detection up to 300 meters and redundant computing for safety. Partnerships, such as with UPS for Arizona freight hauling starting in 2019 and J.B. Hunt for Texas testing by 2021, illustrated efforts to integrate autonomous trucks into logistics networks and address driver shortages on predictable routes. In July 2023, Waymo halted commercial development of autonomous trucks, redirecting engineering talent and resources to ride-hailing robotaxi services due to slower scalability progress and regulatory challenges in long-haul freight. This ended active expansion in the Class 8 truck market, though limited testing may continue in select areas. As of 2025, no major revivals or new milestones have been announced, with Waymo prioritizing passenger vehicle operations.

Geographic Expansions and Partnerships

Waymo operates commercial robotaxi services in (core base); and , California; ; and Atlanta, Georgia. Testing occurs in , , , New Orleans, New York, , , , , and Tampa to support future rollouts. Announced expansions include , , , , Orlando, , , , , and Nashville, targeting launches in late 2025 or 2026. Internationally, mapping and testing with safety drivers began in Tokyo, Japan, in 2025, with commercial services planned for London, United Kingdom, in 2026, adapted for right-hand driving and local regulations. Partnerships support these operations through ride-hailing distribution, fleet management, maintenance, and charging. integrations in Austin and Atlanta leverage its platform for rider access while Waymo supplies autonomous vehicles. will manage fleet operations in Nashville via its Flexdrive program starting in 2026. provides maintenance, charging, and logistics for Dallas. A preliminary agreement with explores joint autonomous driving systems for future platforms.
City/AreaStatusKey Partners/Notes
Phoenix, AZOperationalCore base
San Francisco, CAOperationalPeninsula access
Los Angeles, CAOperational120+ sq mi coverage
Austin, TXOperationalUber for distribution
Atlanta, GAOperationalUber for distribution
Dallas, TXAnnouncedAvis for maintenance/charging/logistics
Nashville, TNAnnouncedLyft for fleet management
Miami, FLAnnounced
Houston, TXAnnounced
San Antonio, TXAnnounced
Orlando, FLAnnounced
Las Vegas, NVAnnounced
San Diego, CAAnnounced
Detroit, MIAnnounced
Washington, D.C.Announced
London, UKAnnouncedInternational debut

Safety and Performance Data

Empirical Safety Metrics

Waymo's autonomous vehicles have logged over 100 million rider-only miles across operational cities including Phoenix, , , and Austin as of July 2025. These miles form the basis for empirical safety metrics derived from self-reported data and independent benchmarks, primarily focusing on crash rates normalized per million miles (IPMM). Key indicators include police-reported crashes, injury-involved crashes, and severe incidents such as airbag deployments or pedestrian collisions. Detailed crash statistics specifically for 2025 and 2026 are not yet publicly available in broken-down form, as comprehensive data for these years may not be fully published. In a peer-reviewed analysis of 7.1 million autonomous miles through early 2024, Waymo's injury crash rate stood at 0.6 IPMM, compared to a human benchmark of 2.80 IPMM, while police-reported crashes occurred at 2.1 IPMM versus 4.68 IPMM for humans. The latest available data up to 2024 shows Waymo vehicles experience injury-causing crashes at rates 6-10 times lower than human drivers, depending on the metric. Extending to 96 million rider-only miles reported in September 2025, Waymo documented five times fewer injury crashes and twelve times fewer pedestrian injury crashes relative to human drivers in comparable urban environments. Severe crashes, defined by airbag triggers, numbered only one for Waymo over this mileage, against an estimated 159 for equivalent human driving exposure. When collisions occur, other road users are at fault in the majority of cases (80-90%), with Waymo vehicles more frequently being hit than hitting others, particularly in rear-end collisions due to the AVs' cautious braking and predictable behavior.
MetricWaymo Rate (IPMM)Human Benchmark (IPMM)Reduction
Injury Crashes0.62.8079%
Police-Reported Crashes2.14.6855%
Pedestrian Injury CrashesLow (12x fewer overall)N/AN/A
These figures draw from Waymo's voluntary disclosures benchmarked against state-reported human crash data from comparable urban environments, with normalization per million miles to account for exposure; critics note potential underreporting of minor incidents or selection bias in operational geofencing.

Incident Analysis and NHTSA Investigations

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has conducted several investigations and overseen recalls related to Waymo's autonomous driving systems, primarily addressing low-speed collisions with stationary objects and specific traffic scenario responses. In February 2024, Waymo recalled 444 vehicles following two minor collisions in caused by a software error in handling certain road configurations, prompting a software update with no reported injuries. A larger recall in May 2025 affected approximately 1,200 fifth-generation automated driving system (ADS) vehicles with software versions predating November 7, 2024, due to 22 reported collisions with gates, chains, or similar low-speed barriers between December 2022 and October 2023; the issue involved failure to classify certain objects as immovable. NHTSA's analysis confirmed these as non-injurious, addressed via over-the-air software deployment. NHTSA initiated preliminary evaluation PE24016 on May 13, 2024, into 22 incidents of Waymo vehicles striking visible stationary objects, expanded on May 24, 2024, to include nine additional events. The probe focused on fifth-generation ADS-equipped Jaguar I-PACE vehicles operating without safety drivers. It closed on July 25, 2025, after Waymo issued two software recalls and provided data showing reduced incident rates, though NHTSA retained authority for further review if needed. The following table summarizes key NHTSA investigations:
InvestigationDate OpenedScopeOutcome
PE24016: Collisions with stationary objectsMay 13, 202422 initial incidents (17 crashes/fires with gates/chains); expanded to 31 totalClosed July 25, 2025, after recalls and data review showing mitigations
PE25013: School bus interaction failureOctober 17, 2025Single reported event of Waymo vehicle passing stopped school bus with extended stop arm; potential non-compliance with traffic lawsOngoing preliminary evaluation into fifth-gen ADS behavior around school buses
A more recent probe, PE25013 opened on October 17, 2025, examines an incident in where a driverless Waymo vehicle failed to yield to a stopped school bus with extended stop arm and flashing lights, proceeding past children in a crosswalk. This evaluates potential deficiencies in detecting dynamic emergency signals, involving analysis of Waymo's operations exceeding 100 million miles by July 2025. During a widespread PG&E power outage in on December 20, 2025, Waymo vehicles, designed to treat disrupted traffic lights as four-way stops, encountered a spike in confirmation requests that overwhelmed the system, leading to delays, stalling, and blocking of intersections as reported by multiple sources. Waymo temporarily paused services to prioritize emergency response and directed the fleet to safe locations. On January 7, 2026, a Waymo robotaxi drove onto the tracks near Central and Southern in Phoenix, Arizona, and became stuck, prompting the passenger to exit the driverless vehicle and cross the roadway as an approaching train neared. Video footage shows the vehicle in reverse gear with hazard lights activated and onlookers warning of danger. The train operator halted the train to avoid collision. No injuries occurred, and emergency responders attended the scene.

Comparative Effectiveness vs. Human Drivers

Multiple studies have compared Waymo's crash rates to those of human drivers using matched benchmarks from similar geographies and road types. A 2024 peer-reviewed study in examined over 22 million miles of Waymo operations in rider-only mode across Phoenix, , and , reporting fewer injury-causing crashes, police-reported crashes, and airbag deployment crashes relative to human benchmarks from the same areas. In Austin, Waymo's safety report noted differences in injury crashes and airbag deployments compared to human drivers. A November 2024 analysis in Traffic Injury Prevention compared police-reported and injury crash rates per million miles, finding lower rates for Waymo vehicles versus human benchmarks. A December 2024 Swiss Re Institute study of over 56.7 million Waymo miles through early 2025 benchmarked against insured human-driven vehicles in the same operating cities, observing differences in pedestrian injury crashes and property damage claims. Waymo's self-reported data indicate comparable or slightly higher involvement in minor incidents, attributed to detailed logging of near-misses, with external human drivers determined at fault in over 80% of cases. Waymo reports disengagement rates equivalent to over 17,000 miles per intervention during testing, compared to human error frequencies in controlled benchmarks. A June 2024 matched case-control study in found that autonomous systems like Waymo's react more quickly to obstacles, potentially reducing collision severity in urban settings. Some analyses note possible underreporting in human insurance data, though cross-verification with police reports and telematics addresses such concerns. As of mid-2025, Waymo's fleet had accumulated over 50 million rider-only miles.

Controversies and Criticisms

Public Backlash and Vandalism

Public opposition to Waymo's autonomous vehicles has manifested in protests, acts of vandalism, and interference tactics, particularly in urban areas where operations are concentrated. Backlash has included violent vandalism, such as arson and graffiti, as well as nuisance interference like tire slashing and traffic cone placement, often leading to immediate operational disruptions including service suspensions. In , violent vandalism occurred on February 10, 2024, in the neighborhood, where a crowd attacked a Waymo vehicle, breaking windows, spraying graffiti, and igniting fireworks inside, ultimately setting it ablaze; this incident was investigated amid broader safety concerns following competitor Cruise mishaps. Similar graffiti attacks targeted three Waymo robotaxis in the on September 26, 2024, captured on video, prompting police reports. Escalation continued in 2025, with a 45-year-old man charged on August 14 for multiple damages to Waymo vehicles in 's area, reflecting resident frustration. Tire slashing affected 17 Waymo cars in July 2024, highlighting sabotage perceptions tied to traffic disruption. Nuisance interference included crowds climbing atop vehicles and gesturing offensively on September 1, 2025, in 's , stalling operations. In Santa Monica, , starting in early 2025, residents placed traffic cones on Waymo hoods to trigger safety halts and blocked paths with personal vehicles, driven by complaints over beeping noises and maneuvering; regulators mandated louder alerts, exacerbating issues, and Waymo suspended services amid unrest. experienced politically charged vandalism on June 9, 2025, during protests against federal immigration enforcement, where five Waymo robotaxis were spray-painted and set on fire, prompting the company to halt downtown operations. These events amplified distrust of autonomous technology, with Waymo attributing disruptions to isolated attacks despite overall viability. Backlash stems from anxieties over technological displacement, safety concerns post-2023 Cruise incidents, and urban congestion, though unsubstantiated against Waymo's safety statistics.

Regulatory and Policy Hurdles

Waymo's autonomous vehicle operations have encountered multifaceted regulatory challenges at federal, state, and local levels, centered on safety validation, operational permitting, and jurisdictional inconsistencies that affect deployment scaling. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) provides federal oversight, establishing safety standards and conducting investigations to validate autonomous vehicle performance. In California, where Waymo maintains significant operations, approvals from the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) and California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) are required for driverless testing, deployment, and commercial fare collection. Waymo secured CPUC authorization on March 1, 2024, to expand driverless robotaxi services to Los Angeles and the San Francisco Peninsula areas, overcoming objections from local officials regarding traffic and safety. On May 19, 2025, the CPUC approved further Bay Area expansion, incorporating an updated Passenger Safety Plan to enable broader operations. The DMV has granted Waymo driverless testing and deployment permits, distinguishing it from competitors such as Cruise, whose operations were suspended in October 2023 following safety issues. Interstate differences exacerbate policy barriers; for example, New York State's mandate for human safety operators has hindered Waymo's Northeast expansion, leading to lobbying for legislative changes as of July 2025. Efforts to enter markets like Denver and Seattle require compliance with local ordinances and potential city-level approvals, which can delay scaling. These inconsistencies reflect ongoing tensions between desires for federal preemption and state/local autonomy in regulating autonomous vehicles, slowing operational growth despite Waymo's position as the leading U.S. firm with widespread commercial driverless approvals as of mid-2025.

Economic Impacts and Job Displacement Debates

Proponents of autonomous vehicles (AVs) argue that services like Waymo's robotaxis enhance efficiency through reduced operational costs and increased ride availability, potentially stimulating local economic activity. A 2025 analysis commissioned by Waymo found that each Waymo ride in the San Francisco Bay Area generates economic value, including effects from passenger spending and logistics efficiencies. Debates center on job displacement in ride-hailing and delivery sectors, where AVs reduce the need for human drivers. In cities with Waymo operations, such as San Francisco, Phoenix, and Los Angeles, ride-sharing analytics from Gridwise indicated median hourly earnings for Uber and Lyft drivers declined by up to 15% between 2023 and mid-2025, compared to a 5-7% national increase for similar workers, linked to competition from driverless fleets. Uber CEO Dara Khosrowshahi stated in September 2025 that widespread AV adoption could displace drivers within 10-15 years. Academic projections estimate that full AV penetration in urban mobility could affect 1-2 million U.S. driving jobs, particularly impacting low-wage gig workers. Critics point to uneven distributional effects, noting that while AVs may create roles in software maintenance and fleet management, displaced workers may face challenges without retraining. A 2024 University of Michigan review of San Francisco's AV ecosystem discussed potential revenue shortfalls for governments from driver-related taxes and fees, along with gig worker displacement. Waymo's operations, reaching over 100,000 weekly rides in Phoenix by late 2025, correlate with reports of drivers reducing hours or leaving platforms as AV market share grows. Proponents argue that productivity gains from safer and cheaper transport, including Waymo's lower property damage claims, could drive broader economic growth.

Intellectual Property Litigation

In February 2017, Waymo filed a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California against Uber Technologies and its acquisition Otto, accusing them of trade secret misappropriation and infringement of four Waymo patents related to LiDAR technology for autonomous vehicles. The complaint centered on former Waymo engineer Anthony Levandowski, who allegedly downloaded over 14,000 confidential files containing proprietary designs for LiDAR circuit boards before resigning in January 2016 to found Otto, which Uber acquired for $680 million later that year. Waymo contended that Uber integrated these designs into its own self-driving systems, violating trade secret protections under the Defend Trade Secrets Act and infringing patents including U.S. Patent Nos. 8,836,923 and 9,110,155, which cover methods for reducing noise in LiDAR signals. The case drew significant attention for its implications on employee mobility in tech and the protection of autonomous vehicle innovations, with Waymo seeking an injunction against Uber's use of the disputed technology and unspecified damages. During pretrial proceedings, Waymo dropped claims on three of the four patents amid challenges, including a third-party inter partes review where the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office invalidated 53 of 56 claims in one LiDAR patent (U.S. Patent No. 8,836,923) after finding prior art, though Waymo appealed the decision. Trial began in January 2018, but after five days—during testimony on whether Uber had used the secrets—the parties settled confidentially, with Uber agreeing to provide Waymo 0.34% equity (valued at approximately $245 million based on Uber's $72 billion valuation at the time) and a commitment not to use Waymo's confidential information in its hardware. Parallel to the civil suit, Levandowski faced criminal charges from the U.S. Department of Justice for trade secret theft from Google's self-driving program, pleading guilty in March 2020 and receiving an 18-month prison sentence, $756,499 in restitution to Waymo, and a $90,000 fine. The resolution underscored tensions between patent and trade secret strategies in competitive fields like autonomous driving, where companies like Waymo hold extensive portfolios but face risks from employee defections and rapid technological iteration. No other major intellectual property litigations involving Waymo as plaintiff or defendant have been publicly resolved as of 2025, though the company continues to assert patents defensively in the industry.

Funding, Valuation, and Corporate Structure

Waymo is structured as a wholly-owned subsidiary of , established following 's 2015 corporate reorganization into a holding company model that separated core search operations from experimental ventures. This structure positions Waymo within 's "Other Bets" division, which encompasses high-risk, high-reward initiatives independent from 's primary advertising revenue streams. In 2017, Waymo and other entities were legally consolidated under XXVI Holdings Inc., an intermediate holding company that owns equity in subsidiaries including and Waymo, enabling focused governance while leveraging shared resources like Google Cloud infrastructure. has provided the bulk of Waymo's operational funding since its inception as the Google Self-Driving Car Project in 2009, with cumulative investments exceeding $10 billion by 2024. External capital raises began in 2020 to accelerate autonomous vehicle deployment, with subsequent rounds supporting fleet expansion and mapping technologies.
Funding RoundDateAmount RaisedLead InvestorsPost-Money Valuation
Series Unknown (First External)March 2020$2.25B (expanded to $3.2B)Silver Lake, CPP Investments, Mubadala~$30B
Cumulative External (up to 2022)Various~$5.5BMultipleNot specified
Series COctober 2024$5.6B, Andreessen Horowitz, Fidelity>$45B
The 2020 round valued Waymo at approximately $30 billion post-money, while the 2024 Series C established a valuation exceeding $45 billion. In December 2025, Waymo entered discussions to raise more than $15 billion in a new funding round led by , targeting a valuation near $100 billion to support the global expansion of its robotaxi services. Independent analyst estimates have projected higher figures, such as $60 billion or more, but these remain speculative and unverified by funding events.

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