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2A46 125 mm gun
2A46 125 mm gun
2A46 125 mm gun
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The 2A46 (also called D-81TM) is a 125 mm/L48 smoothbore cannon of Soviet origin used in several main battle tanks. It was designed by OKB-9 (Artillery Plant No. 9) in Yekaterinburg.

Key Information

Description

[edit]

It was developed by the Spetstekhnika Design Bureau in Ekaterinburg in the 1960s originally for the T-64 tank. They were subsequently manufactured at Artillery Plant No. 9 in Ekaterinburg and Motovilikha in Perm. Other variations include 2A46M, 2A46M-1, 2A46M-2, 2A46M-4, 2A46M-5, and Ukrainian KBA-3 and Chinese ZPT-98.

The 2A46 can fire armour-piercing fin-stabilised discarding sabot (APFSDS), high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and high-explosive fragmentation (HEF) projectiles. The ammunition for the 2A46 gun is in two pieces: the projectile is loaded first, followed by a separate propellant charge.

The early versions of the 2A46 suffered from a relatively short barrel life, but this was rectified on the 2A46M-1 version. Depending on the version it offers 510.0 MPa (73,970 psi) or from the 2A46M-1 650.0 MPa (94,270 psi) Pmax chamber pressure.[1]

The Ukrainian KBA-3 guns are based on the 2A46 gun. In addition, the Chinese ZPT-98 is based on 2A46M imported from Russia's T-72 or T-80.[2]

Projectiles

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Projectile specifications for 2A46 and 2A46M[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Note: There are different ways to measure penetration value. NATO uses the 50% (This means that 50% of the projectile had to go through the plate), while the Soviet/Russia standard is higher (80% had to go through). According to authorities like Paul Lakowski, the difference in performance can reach as much as 8%[9]
Round index Projectile index Charge index Round weight, kg Projectile weight, kg Charge weight, kg Penetration, mm/deg[note 1]
APFSDS Rounds
3VBM3 3BM9/3BM10 4Zh40 19.6 5.67 5.0/5.0+3.4 245mm/0°, 140mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM6 3BM12/3BM13 4Zh40 19.6 5.67 5.0/5.0+3.4 380mm/0°, 140mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM7 3BM15/3BM16 4Zh40 20.0 5.9 5.0/5.0+3.4 400mm/0°, 150mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM8 3BM17/3BM18 4Zh40 20.0 5.9 5,0/5,0+3,4 265mm/0°, 150mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM9 3BM22/3BM23 4Zh40 20.2 6.55 5,0/5,0+3,4 420mm/0°, 170mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM11 3BM26/3BM27 4Zh63 20.43 7.05 5.3/5.3+2.9 410mm/0°, 200mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM12 3BM29/3BM30 6.55 360mm /0°, 210mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM13 3BM32/3BM38 4Zh63 20.55 7.05 5.3/5.3+2.9 395mm/0°, 230mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM17 3BM42/3BM44 ("Mango") 4Zh63 20.4 7.05 5.3/5.3+2.9 450mm/0°, 230mm/60° @ 2km
—- 3BM44-2 (“Mango-2”) 480mm/0°, 280mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM19 3BM42M/3BM44M ("Lekalo") 4Zh63 20.4 7.05 5.3/5.3+2.9 ???mm/0°, ???mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM20 3BM46/3BM48 ("Svinets") 4Zh63 20.4 7.05 5.3/5.3+2.9 495mm/0°, 290mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM22 3BM59 ("Svinets-1") 8.8 ???mm/0°, 315mm/60° @ 2km
3VBM23 3BM60 ("Svinets-2") 8.1 ???mm/0°, 300mm/60° @ 2km
125-mm TAPNA 6.7 5.5/5.5+3.3 460mm/0°, 270mm/60° @ 2km
ZPS Pronit[note 2] 4Zh63 5.855/5.855+3.0 430mm/0°, 250mm/60° @ 2km
125-I[note 3] 23.0 7.37 430mm/0°, 250mm/60° @ 2km
125-II / DTW-125 [note 4] 23.0 7.44 515mm/0°, 300mm/60° @ 2km
125-III / DTC10-125 [note 5] ???mm/0°, 330mm/60° @ 2km [1]
HEAT Rounds
3VBK7 3BK12(M) 4Zh40 29.0 19.0 5.0 220/60°
3VBK10 3BK14(M) 4Zh40 29.0 19.0 5.0 220/60°
3VBK16 3BK18(M) 4Zh40 29.0 19.0 5.0 260/60°
3VBK17 3BK21B 4Zh52 29.0 19.0 10.0 260/60°
3VBK25 3BK29(M) 4Zh52 28.4 18.4 10.0 300/60°
3VBK27 3BK31 19.0 350/60°[note 6]
125-mm HEAT[note 7] 19.0 200/60°
125-mm HEAT-T[note 8] 33.0 23.0 10,0
125-mm HEAT-T[note 9] 19.5 200/60°
M88[note 10]
HE Rounds
3VOF22 3OF19 4Zh40 33.0 23.0 5.0 —
3VOF36 3OF26 4Zh40 33.0 23.0 5.0 —
Practice HEAT Rounds
3VP5 3P11 4Zh40 29.0 19.0 5.0
Practice APFSDS Rounds
3VP6 3P31/3P35 4Zh40 19.5 5.2 5.0/5.0+4.3 —
Practice HE Rounds
3VP24 3P23 4Zh40 33.0 23.0 5.0 —
Training Rounds
3VPU4 3PU12 4PU105 19.1 9.6 —
3VPU5 3PU13 4PU105 28.5 19.0 —
3VPU6 3PU14 4PU105 32.5 23.0 —
Inert — 4Kh33 — — 13 —
Guided weapons for 2A46-2, 2A46M and their variants
ATGMs[10][11][12][13][14]
9M112 9D129 33.2 250/60°
9M112M 300/60°
9M112M2 31.1 24 300..350/60°
9M124 33.6 27.9 450/60°
3UBK14 9M119 9Kh949 23.3 16.5 7.1 325..375/60°
Sokol-1 4Zh63 23.0 5.3 350/60°
Explosive ATGMs[15][16]
3UBK14F 9M119F 9Kh949 23.6 16.5 7.1 —
3UBK14F1 9M119F1 9Kh949 23.3 16.5 6.8 —
Guided weapons for 2A46M and its variants
3UBK20 9M119M 9Kh949 24.3 17.2 7.1 325..375/60°
3UBK20M 9M119M1 9Kh949 24.3 17.2 7.1 425..450/60°
AP projectiles for 2A46M-5
3VBM22 3BM59 4Zh96 540/0° @ 2km
3VBM23 3BM60 4Zh96 515/0° @ 2km
??? 3BM69 ???/0°
??? 3BM70 ???/0°

Variants

[edit]

Soviet Union and Russia

[edit]
  • 2A46 (1963): Used on T-64, T-64A and T-72. Basic model, connected to either AZ-172 or MZ-610 autoloaders with 2E23 or 2E28 hydroelectric gun stabilisers that both utilise the TPD FCS, with BV-72 or BV-64 mechanical ballistic calculators, that can fire 3BM15 APFSDS, 3OF19 HE-FRAG-FS or 3BK14 HEAT-FS.
  • 2A46-1 (1976): Used on T-72A. Connected to AZ-172 electromechanical autoloader and the 2E28M2 gun stabiliser that utilises the TPD-K digitised FCS that can fire 3BM22 Zakolka, 3BM26 Nadezhda-R and 3BM29 Nadphil-2 APFSDS, 3OF26 HE-FRAG-FS or 3BK18 HEAT-FS.
  • 2A46-2 (1973): Used on T-64B and T-80. The first "modern gun" of the series, with basic barrel sensors fitted for the 1A33 digital FCS with the 1V517 8x bit digital ballistic computer, connected to MZ-640 hydromechanical autoloaders and 2E26 or 2E28 hydroelectric gun stabilizers and can fire 3BM22 Zakolka, 3BM26 Nadezhda-R and 3BM29 Nadphil-2 APFSDS, 3OF26 HE-FRAG-FS or 3BK18 HEAT-FS aswell as radio guided 3UBK12 Kobra GLATGM.
  • 2A46M (1983): Used on T-72B. Mobilization model of the 2A46M-1, made for fast build T-72Bs to allow firing of more advanced munitions without added fire control additions for better accuracy. Added a thermal sleeve and connected to 1A40-1 digitised FCS with a 1V510 4x bit digital ballistic computer utilising the AZ-184 digitally controlled electromechanical autoloader and the 2E42 digitally assisted hydroelectric gun stabiliser and can fire 3BM42 Mango and 3BM32 Vant APFSDS, 3OF26 HE-FRAG-FS, 3BK29 Breyk HEAT-FS and 3UBK14 Svir GLATGM.
  • 2A46M-1 (1983): Used on T-64BV, T-80BV and T-80U. The first real modernization, with more sophisticated gun and barrel sensors being added, a muzzle reference system would not be added as it's thought that by designers that internal position and temperature sensors combined with a thermal sleeve would be enough for enhanced accuracy, whilst long range shooting was dealt with the guided gun launched ATGMs. Improved barrel sensors that connect to 1A45 and 1A33-1 digital FCS with the 1V528 16x bit digital ballistic computer connected to MZ-643 digitally controlled hydromechanical autoloader and the 2E42M1 digitally assisted hydroelectric gun stabiliser and can fire 3BM42 Mango and 3BM32 Vant APFSDS, 3OF26 HE-FRAG-FS, 3BK29 Breyk HEAT-FS and 3UBK14 Svir GLATGM. (said to be the first Rh-120 analogue)
  • 2A46M-2 (1989): Used on T-72S, T-72BA, T-72B3 and T-90 tanks. A simple upgrade. Allows for firing of 3BM48 Svinets APFSDS and the 3Sh7 Voron Anti Personnel Canister and is connected to the 1A40-2, 1A40-M2, 1A40-4 and 1A45T fully digital FCS utilising the 1V528 16x bit, 1V558 32x bit, Sosna-U 32x bit and 1V528-1 32x bit digital ballistic computers, all connected to the AZ-184 digitally controlled electromechanical autoloader and the 2E42-4 digitally assisted hydroelectric gun stabiliser and can fire laser guided 3UBK14M Refleks.
  • 2A46M-3 (1990): Used on T-80UK and T-80UM. Allows for firing of 3BM48 Svinets APFSDS and the 3Sh7 Voron Anti Personnel Canister and is connected to the 1A45M and 1A45T fully digital FCS utilising the 1V528 16x bit and 1V528-2 32x bit digital ballistic computers using the MZ-643 digitally controlled hydromechanical autoloader and the 2E42-4 digitally assisted hydroelectric gun stabiliser and can fire laser guided 3UBK14M Refleks.
  • 2A46M-4 (1995): Used on T-80BVM and Object 640. A more substantial upgrade with complete overhaul of internal sensors and barrel, with more durable materials used to greatly increase MPa. Utilises the 1A33-4 fully digital FCS with the Sosna-U 32x bit digital ballistic computer utilising the MZ-643A fully digitally assisted hydromechanical autoloader and the 2E42-4 digitally assisted hydroelectric or the 2E58 fully digital electromechanical gun stabiliser and allows for firing of 3BM44M Lekalko, 3BM59 Svinets-1 and 3BM60 Svinets-2 APFSDS, 3BK31 Start HEAT-FS, 3Sh8 Ainet Anti Personnel Canister, 3OF26M HE-FRAG-FS and laser guided 3UBK20 Invar, along with more sophisticated connections for 1A33-4 FCS.
  • 2A46M-5 (1999): Used on T-90A, T-72M1M and T-72B3M. A more substantial upgrade with complete overhaul of internal sensors and barrel, with more durable materials used to greatly increase MPa. Utilises the 1A45T, 1A48 and 1A40-4 fully digital FCS using the 1V528-1, 1V558 and Sosna-U 32x bit digital ballistic computers all connected to the AZ-184A fully digital electromechanical autoloader and the 2E42-4 digitally assisted hydroelectric or the 2E58 fully digital electromechanical gun stabiliser and allows for firing of 3BM44M Lekalko, 3BM59 Svinets-1 and 3BM60 Svinets-2 APFSDS, 3BK31 Start HEAT-FS, 3Sh8 Ainet Anti Personnel Canister, 3OF26M HE-FRAG-FS and laser guided 3UBK20 Invar, along with more sophisticated connections for 1A45T, 1A48 or 1A40-4 FCS.
  • 2A46M-1M (2016): Used on T-90M (2A82-1M offshoot, Utilises the Kalina/Proryv-3 all digital FCS (Armata downgrade for T-90M) with a 64x bit digital ballistic computer connected to AZ-185M2 fully digital electromechanical autoloader with the 2E58 fully digital electromechanical gun stabiliser, with advanced barrel sensors for the Kalina/Proryv-3 FCS and a dynamic MRS on top for firing 3BM69 Vacuum-2 and 3BM70 Vaccum-1 at long range with an added ammunition data link to fire the programmable 3VOF128 Telnik round)
  • 2A82-1M (2014): Used on T-14 Armata.[17]A Generational leap, completely new gun with the addition of a ammunition data link for programmable firings, sensors that allow the firing of radar and IR guided gun missiles and lastly a dynamic MRS for the firing of long range APFSDS and reducing the need for more regular boresighting, utilises the Kalina-Armata all digital FCS using the 1V577 64x bit digital ballistic computer connected to AZ-185 fully digital electromechanical autoloader with the 2E60 fully digital electromechanical gun stabiliser, can fire the 3BM69 Vacuum-2 and 3BM70 Vaccum-1 APFSDS, 3VOF128 Telnik Programmable MultiRole round, can also fire radar guided 3UBK21 Sprinter and infrared homing 3UBK25 Sokol-V)

Source:[18]

China

[edit]
  • ZPT-98: Used on Type 96. Thermal sleeve with barrel sensors for FCS.
  • ZPT-98A: Used on Type 99. Modern gun with modern sensors and a static MRS for long range APFSDS.

Ukraine

[edit]
  • KBA-3: Used on T-84.[19]. 2A46M-5 analogue.

Slovakia

  • 2A46MS: Used on T-72 M2 Moderna[20] and PT-91M Pendekar

Tanks using the 2A46

[edit]
See also: T-72 operators and variants
Map with 2A46 operators in blue with former operators in red

The 2A46 has been used in numerous tanks, almost exclusively Soviet/Russian designs or foreign derivatives:

See also

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Weapons of comparable role, performance and era

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Sources

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References

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Notes

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

2A46 125 mm gun

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from Grokipedia
The 2A46 is a Soviet-designed 125 mm , designated D-81TM, featuring an L/48 barrel length of 6,000 mm and a weight of approximately 2,500 kg, developed in the late by the OKB-9 Spetstekhnika bureau in Sverdlovsk (now ) as the primary armament for the . It employs a separate-loading with semi-combustible cases, enabling a of 6–8 rounds per minute when paired with an , and is capable of launching penetrators, rounds, high-explosive fragmentation projectiles, and gun-launched anti-tank guided missiles such as the 9M112 Kobra. Entering service in 1974, the 2A46 evolved from earlier Soviet guns like the 125 mm 2A26 used on the , incorporating improvements such as a , , and enhanced recoil mechanisms to address issues with barrel durability and firing stability. Over 20,000 units have been produced since its introduction, with production continuing into the present day, reflecting its enduring role in Soviet and n armored forces. The gun's design prioritized compatibility with automated loading systems, including the "Korzina" carousel autoloader on the and , which holds up to 28 rounds, while the and variants use a horizontal feed system accommodating 22–39 rounds depending on the configuration. Key variants include the baseline 2A46 and 2A46-2 (1976, adding ATGM capability), the modernized 2A46M series (from 1980, with stronger barrels and detachable designs for easier maintenance), and advanced iterations like the 2A46M-4 (1990) and 2A46M-5 (2005), which feature chrome-lined bores for extended barrel life—up to 1,200 equivalent full charges with standard —and improved performance against reactive armor. Effective engagement ranges reach 4,000 meters for armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) and (HEAT) rounds, extending to 5,000 meters for high-explosive (HE) fragmentation projectiles, with muzzle velocities exceeding 1,750 m/s for APFSDS . The 2A46 has been the standard main gun for numerous main battle tanks, including the , , , and series, as well as export derivatives such as Poland's PT-91, Ukraine's , and upgraded foreign variants like the Czech and Iranian . Its integration with advanced fire-control systems, such as those enabling beam-riding for ATGMs, has allowed it to remain competitive despite the shift toward Western 120 guns, though later variants address limitations in barrel life (initially around 800–1,200 rounds) and penetration against modern threats. Foreign adaptations, including Ukraine's KBA-3 and China's ZPT-98, further demonstrate its influence on global tank design.

Development

Origins and Early Design

The development of the 2A46 125 mm gun was initiated in the early 1970s by the Spetstekhnika Design Bureau (also known as OKB-9) in , formerly Sverdlovsk, as part of the Soviet Union's efforts to enhance armament during the . This project was driven by the need to equip the tank with a more powerful weapon to counter emerging threats, such as the American M60 Patton, which featured improved armor and firepower that outmatched earlier Soviet 115 mm guns like the . Soviet designers recognized that a larger-caliber was essential for maintaining parity in , prompting a shift toward 125 mm systems capable of firing advanced projectiles at higher velocities. The 2A46 evolved from the earlier 2A26 (D-81T) cannon, which had been developed in 1962 and formalized in 1963 specifically for integration into the 's turret, adopting a 125 mm/L48 configuration to optimize performance with high-velocity armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) rounds and, in later adaptations, anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs). The 2A46, entering service in 1974, incorporated further improvements. Key design objectives included compatibility with the and subsequent autoloaders to enable a and rapid firing rates, as well as support for elevated chamber pressures around 510 MPa to achieve superior muzzle energies without excessive . This design marked a departure from rifled predecessors, allowing for the efficient launch of fin-stabilized projectiles that provided better armor penetration against contemporary Western tanks. Initial prototypes of the 2A46 underwent testing in the early , focusing on integration with the T-64's automated loading and verification of its ballistic performance. However, early versions faced significant challenges, including limited barrel life estimated at 300-400 effective shots, primarily due to the high operating pressures and the absence of chrome lining, which accelerated wear on the bore. These issues stemmed from the ambitious push for increased power in a compact tank-mounted , but they were later addressed in subsequent modernizations.

Production and Modernization

Production of the 2A46 125 mm gun commenced in 1970 at Artillery Plant No. 9 in and the Motovilikha Plants in , where it was manufactured for integration into Soviet main battle tanks. By the , over 20,000 units of the 2A46 and its variants had been produced for Soviet, Russian, and export applications, reflecting its widespread adoption in armored forces. The initial 2A46 addressed early design limitations such as limited barrel durability through iterative modernizations. The 2A46M variant, introduced in 1980, featured a chrome-lined barrel that improved longevity and allowed field replacement without turret disassembly, enhancing maintenance efficiency. Subsequent upgrades included the 2A46M-1 in 1982, designed for the T-80 series . In the 1990s, the 2A46M-4 variant for the U incorporated an enhanced recoil system for greater stability during firing, supporting higher accuracy in dynamic conditions. More recent developments include the 2A46M-5, adopted in 2005, which supports elevated chamber pressures and integrates with digital fire control systems for improved targeting precision on platforms like the T-90A. This evolution influenced derivatives such as the 2A82-1M gun for the , introduced in 2014, featuring a longer L/55 barrel for increased while maintaining compatibility with 2A46 ammunition. Production ramped up during the 1970s amid the , driven by the need to equip massed Soviet armored units. Post-Soviet, exports and licensing agreements facilitated production in countries including and , enabling local manufacturing of variants for their fleets.

Design and Operation

Barrel and Firing Mechanism

The 2A46 is a chambered in 125 mm caliber, featuring a barrel length of 6,000 mm, equivalent to L/48. The overall gun assembly measures approximately 6.7 m in length, with a weight of approximately 2,500 kg. The breech mechanism employs a vertical sliding block design with semi-automatic operation, enabling compatibility with two-piece ammunition consisting of separate projectiles and propellant charges. The recoil system incorporates a hydro-pneumatic absorber to manage the gun's rearward motion, and an ejection port for expelling spent propellant cases. The design includes a bore evacuator to clear combustion gases and a thermal sleeve to protect against heat deformation. The initial 2A46 used a barrel without lining, which was prone to , while subsequent variants like the 2A46M introduced a chrome lining to enhance , achieving a barrel life of approximately 500 rounds for generic ammunition, shorter (around 210 rounds) for high-charge types like APFSDS or extended-range projectiles, and up to 840 rounds for HEAT/HEF, with overall estimates of 400-800 rounds depending on type and usage. The design supports integration with s for efficient loading of the two-piece .

Fire Control and Autoloader Integration

The 2A46 125 mm gun integrates with carousel-type s in Soviet and Russian main battle tanks, enabling automated handling that reduces the size to three by eliminating the need for a dedicated loader. In and tanks, the autoloader features a turret-floor configuration holding 28 rounds ready to fire, while the and variants use a similar design but with 22 rounds stored. The loading cycle typically takes 6-7 seconds per round, allowing for a sustained of 6-8 rounds per minute. Fire control for the 2A46 is provided by stabilized systems such as the 2E28 or 2E42, which incorporate a , ballistic computer, and thermal imaging sights to compute firing solutions and maintain accuracy during movement. These systems enable precise targeting, with the ballistic computer accounting for environmental factors and projectile ballistics to support effective engagement ranges. The integration ensures seamless coordination between the gun, , and sights, facilitating rapid follow-up shots. The gun is compatible with gun-launched anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) like the 9M119 , introduced in the 1980s, which are fired directly through the barrel using the same and fire control systems. The achieves a flight speed of approximately 350 m/s and an of up to 5 km, providing standoff engagement capabilities against armored targets. Safety features in the 2A46's integration include mechanical interlocks, such as a protective that closes after each round passes during loading to prevent misfires or accidental detonation, and a on the barrel to manage heat buildup during sustained firing. Upgrades in the 2A46M-5 variant incorporate a digital , enhancing overall accuracy through improved and computational precision.

Ammunition

Projectile Types

The 2A46 125 mm gun supports a range of armor-piercing projectiles designed for engaging armored vehicles, including armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) rounds and (HEAT) rounds. APFSDS rounds, such as the 3BM42 "," feature a penetrator sheathed in , with a projectile weight of 7.05 kg and of approximately 1,700 m/s, enabling penetration of up to 520 mm of rolled homogeneous armor (RHA) at 2,000 m under average conditions. Earlier APFSDS variants, like the 3BM17 introduced in the 1970s, utilized a penetrator weighing 3.9 kg with a of 1,780 m/s, achieving around 310 mm RHA penetration at 2,000 m. HEAT rounds, exemplified by the 3BK25, employ a warhead with a of 905 m/s and can penetrate approximately 600 mm RHA () from 2,000 m. High-explosive s provide versatile support against soft targets and fortifications, including high-explosive fragmentation (HE-F) and canister rounds. The 3OF26 HE-F round, a fin-stabilized with a TNT bursting charge, achieves a of 850 m/s and an of up to 4,000 m for , dispersing fragments over a wide area upon . Canister rounds are available for anti-infantry roles, creating a shotgun-like effect against personnel at close range. Guided munitions expand the gun's capabilities for precision strikes, with anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) like the 9M119M Refleks loaded and fired through the barrel as standard projectiles. The Refleks features semi-automatic laser beam-riding guidance and a tandem capable of penetrating up to 900 mm RHA, including reactive armor, at ranges exceeding 5,000 m. Ammunition evolution for the 2A46 reflects advancements in penetrator materials and design, with early APFSDS rounds offering about 310 mm RHA penetration at 2 km to counter contemporary tanks. By the , variants, such as the 3BM26, enhanced performance with improved density and self-sharpening effects, though tungsten-based rounds like the 3BM42 remained prevalent for export and production stability. Post-2000 developments include advanced APFSDS like the 3BM60 "Svinets-2" (, ~700 mm RHA at 2 km) and 3BM69 "Vakuum-1" (claimed >800 mm), improving effectiveness against modern composite and reactive armors. These developments were paired with compatible propellant charges for consistent loading via the .

Propellant and Loading System

The 2A46 125 mm gun employs a two-piece ammunition configuration, consisting of a separate projectile and a propellant charge encased in a semi-combustible cartridge with a metal base stub. This design allows for modular loading tailored to different projectile types, with the complete round typically weighing between 20 and 25 kg depending on the configuration. The charges are nitrocellulose-based, utilizing high-nitrogen pyroxylin formulations for reliable ignition and performance across various environmental conditions. Standard full-charge variants, such as the 4Zh40, weigh approximately 10 kg, including about 5 kg of actual powder, and deliver muzzle velocities of 1,700 to 1,800 m/s when paired with armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) projectiles. Reduced charges are available for high-explosive or other rounds to optimize velocity and , ensuring versatility without requiring gun modifications. In the loading process, the is rammed into the chamber first, followed by the charge, enabling a firing rate of up to eight rounds per minute under automated conditions, with manual backup procedures available for crew intervention. storage supports 22 to 28 ready rounds in the primary stowage, supplemented by reserve capacity in the vehicle hull for sustained operations. The sealed, semi-combustible charges enhance safety by minimizing risks during storage and handling, while maintaining compatibility with international export standards, including adaptations in Chinese-produced systems.

Variants

Soviet and Russian Models

The 2A46 smoothbore gun entered service in 1974 as the primary armament for the T-64A , featuring a basic L/48 barrel design without (ATGM) capability. This initial variant emphasized high-velocity firing of and high-explosive projectiles, with a barrel length of approximately 6,000 mm and a recoil force of around 98,000 N, enabling a up to 8 rounds per minute when integrated with the tank's . Its development by the Spetstekhnika design bureau in Ekaterinburg marked a significant advancement in Soviet tank artillery, prioritizing compatibility with the T-64's carousel while maintaining a barrel life of about 800 effective full charges (EFC) for standard ammunition. The 2A46-2 variant, introduced in 1976 for the T-64B, added the capability to fire gun-launched ATGMs such as the 9M112 Kobra. Subsequent modernization in the 1980s produced the 2A46M series, with the 2A46M-1 introduced in 1983 for the T-72B and T-80U tanks, enhancing ATGM compatibility to include the 9K112 Svir alongside conventional rounds. Key enhancements included a chrome-lined barrel for improved durability and resistance to wear, along with processing to handle higher chamber pressures of up to 5,100 bar, extending the barrel life and reducing dispersion during sustained fire. This model retained the 6,000 mm barrel length and 8 rounds per minute but incorporated better thermal sleeving to mitigate barrel droop under prolonged operation, making it suitable for the more advanced fire control systems of late Cold War-era Soviet tanks. The 1990s saw further refinements with the 2A46M-3 (1990) and 2A46M-4 (1995) variants for advanced T-80 and T-90 series, focusing on enhanced fire control system (FCS) integration and recoil management to support longer-rod APFSDS projectiles. These models featured reduced recoil lengths and improved stabilization, allowing for greater accuracy with ammunition like the 3BM42 Mango, while maintaining compatibility with ATGMs such as the 9M119 Refleks. The 2A46M-5, developed in 1999 and entering service in 2005 for the T-90A (with upgrades for the T-90M in the 2020s), utilized a 2A46M-series barrel but incorporated advanced electronics for digital FCS interfacing, achieving a sustained rate of fire of 7 rounds per minute and a barrel life of up to 1,200 EFC with regular loads. These upgrades emphasized modularity for ongoing modernization, including reinforced linings to accommodate higher-pressure propellants in contemporary Russian service. Overall, more than 20,000 units of the 2A46 family have been produced at facilities like the Motovilikha Plants in Perm for Soviet and Russian forces, with ongoing upgrades in the 2020s—such as those for the T-90M—focusing on electronics and barrel reinforcements to extend service life amid modern combat demands.

Licensed and Foreign Adaptations

The 2A46 125 mm smoothbore gun has been licensed and adapted by several non-Soviet states, particularly following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, which allowed former republics and other nations to pursue independent production and modifications to circumvent export restrictions on advanced Russian weaponry. These adaptations often incorporated local manufacturing capabilities, enhanced compatibility with indigenous systems, and improvements in reliability or integration, while retaining core design elements like the autoloader and smoothbore barrel for compatibility with existing T-series tank platforms. In , the ZPT-98 variant emerged in the 1990s as a direct copy of the 2A46, developed by for integration into the Type 96 , featuring a stabilized barrel with capable of firing standard 125 mm at rates up to 8 rounds per minute. This adaptation prioritized mass production using indigenous materials and propellants to reduce reliance on foreign supplies, enabling the Type 96 to achieve effective armor penetration against contemporary threats. For the more advanced , an evolved ZPT-98 configuration—sometimes designated with upgrades akin to a ZPT-98A—was introduced, incorporating an improved for enhanced targeting accuracy and a slightly longer barrel to boost and range, while maintaining the original's compatibility with anti-tank guided missiles. Ukraine developed the KBA-3 in the as a licensed derivative of the 2A46M-5, primarily for the Oplot , with modifications including a domestically produced for faster reloading cycles and integration of the local "Kombat" system to extend engagement ranges beyond line-of-sight targets. Key divergences include NATO-compatible sighting optics, such as thermal imagers with extended detection ranges up to 5 km, allowing interoperability with Western-standard fire control networks, and a reinforced barrel design that improved under high-pressure firing conditions compared to early Soviet models. These changes addressed post-Soviet disruptions by emphasizing local and . Other adaptations include the Slovak 2A46MS variant for the T-72M2 upgrade package, which featured an enhanced barrel liner and symmetric breech block to extend operational life beyond 1,200 effective full charges while improving recoil management and accuracy during stabilized firing. In and , the PT-91M Pendekar export model incorporated a refined 2A46MS with upgraded stabilizers and compatibility for Western propellants, diverging from the original through integration with French fire control systems for better night-fighting capabilities. India's of the 2A46M for the T-90S tank, initiated under a 2001 agreement with , involved local assembly at , with modifications for indigenous ammunition loading to enhance logistical independence. These foreign versions collectively demonstrate how the 2A46's facilitated post-1991 proliferation, with lifted export barriers enabling broader technological transfers and customizations tailored to regional threats.

Deployment

Equipped Tanks and Vehicles

The 2A46 125 mm gun and its variants were first integrated into Soviet main battle tanks in the 1970s, serving as the primary armament for several key platforms. The T-64A (introduced 1969 with 2A26 gun) and T-64B models were early users, with the 2A46 entering service around 1974-1976 on upgraded T-64A and T-64B to replace the earlier 125 mm 2A26 gun. These tanks featured the gun in a stabilized turret with an , allowing a up to 8 rounds per minute. Subsequent upgrades to the T-64 series retained the 2A46 or its early derivatives like the 2A46-1 for improved accuracy and missile compatibility. The T-72 series, beginning with the T-72A in 1979, widely adopted the 2A46 as its standard main gun, fitted with a thermal sleeve and bore evacuator for enhanced barrel life and performance in diverse environments. Variants such as the T-72M and T-72B3 incorporated later iterations like the 2A46M-5, which supports modern ammunition including laser-guided missiles and offers a muzzle velocity exceeding 1,700 m/s for APFSDS rounds. In late 2024, Russian forces received new batches of T-72B3M tanks equipped with the 2A46M-5 gun, along with Relikt explosive reactive armor. The T-80B and T-80U, entering service in 1976, also mounted the 2A46 in a similar configuration, integrated with a horizontal autoloader and fire control systems for all-weather operation. Russia's family, starting with the T-90A in 1992, continued using the 2A46 series, with models like the T-90S and T-90M employing the 2A46M-4 or 2A46M-5 for compatibility with extended-range projectiles and anti-tank guided missiles. New T-90M deliveries in late 2024 also featured the 2A46M-5. The , introduced in 2015, uses the new 2A82-1M 125 mm gun, a higher-pressure design that replaces the 2A46 while maintaining caliber compatibility and integration. In , licensed and indigenously produced versions of the 2A46 have armed second-generation main battle tanks since the late 1990s. The Type 96, Type 96A, and Type 96B, operational from 1997, utilize a 125 mm gun based on the Russian 2A46M, equipped with an and capable of firing NATO-standard compatible rounds alongside domestic APFSDS projectiles. The Type 99 and Type 99A, entering service in 1999, feature the ZPT-98 and ZPT-98A guns, direct derivatives of the 2A46M adapted for Chinese autoloaders, with enhancements for firing gun-launched anti-tank missiles and achieving penetration depths over 700 mm RHA at 2 km. These integrations emphasize improved fire control and barrel cooling for sustained combat effectiveness. Ukrainian developments and upgrades have extended the 2A46's use in post-Soviet platforms. The Oplot employs the KBA-3, a domestically produced 125 mm gun licensed from the 2A46 series, fitted in a configuration for 46 rounds and compatible with advanced Ukrainian munitions like the Kombat . Ukrainian T-72 upgrades, such as the T-72AV, incorporate improved 2A46M variants with thermal imaging and reactive armor, enhancing lethality against modern threats. In 2025, upgraded T-64 tanks, retaining the 2A46 gun while adding new armor and engines for drone-contested environments. Export models like the T-72M1, based on the T-72A, have been supplied to over 30 countries including , , , and , where they serve as the backbone of armored forces with the original 2A46 gun. North Korea's Cheonma-3 tank, introduced in 2024-2025, uses a 125 mm gun derived from the 2A46. Non-tank applications of the 2A46 remain rare, primarily limited to experimental T-72-based prototypes and static testbeds for ammunition development, where the gun's modular design allows adaptation without full tank integration. Globally, vehicles equipped with the 2A46 or its variants number well over 20,000, reflecting widespread proliferation through Soviet exports and . Modern programs, such as Russia's kits converting T-72s to the T-72B3 standard, routinely install the 2A46M-5 gun alongside digital fire controls and sights, extending service life and firepower for legacy fleets into the .

Operational History and Upgrades

The 2A46 125 mm gun entered service in 1974, initially equipping the Soviet T-64A main battle tank, marking a significant advancement in smoothbore tank armament with its ability to fire both kinetic and guided projectiles. Subsequent variants, such as the 2A46-2 introduced in 1976, integrated compatibility with the 9M112 Kobra laser-guided anti-tank guided missile (ATGM), enabling beyond-line-of-sight engagements up to 4 km. During the (1994–1996), tanks armed with the 2A46 gun were deployed in urban operations, including the siege of Grozny, where they provided fire support but suffered significant losses—over a dozen confirmed—primarily from close-range RPG ambushes due to the tank's vulnerability in built-up areas and crew inexperience rather than inherent gun flaws. The gun proved effective for against fortifications, but the overall tank performance highlighted limitations in anti-infantry roles. Reliability challenges in early models, such as excessive barrel wear, were addressed in the 2A46M variant from 1980 through chrome lining, increasing barrel life to approximately 800 effective full charges (with later variants up to 1,200 EFC) and allowing field barrel replacement without breech disassembly, which was crucial for operations in harsh environments. Autoloader issues, including jams in extreme cold, persisted into the 1990s but were mitigated in integrations via improved mechanical tolerances and heating elements. Field upgrades emphasized enhanced fire control and ammunition compatibility; the 2A46M-4 () and 2A46M-5 () variants featured increased barrel rigidity, reduced dispersion, and support for advanced ATGMs like the 9M119 Refleks, extending effective range and accuracy. Export modernizations, such as on India's T-90S tanks, incorporated Western fire control systems (e.g., Israeli thermal sights) alongside the 2A46M-1 for improved night and beyond-visual-range performance. In recent conflicts like the (2011–present) and the war (2022–ongoing), upgraded T-72B3 and T-90M variants with the 2A46M-5 demonstrated resilience against infantry fighting vehicles through APFSDS rounds but remained susceptible to modern ATGMs, prompting further reactive armor and electronic countermeasures integrations. As of 2025, the gun continues to see active use in these conflicts, with ongoing upgrades to fire control systems enhancing its effectiveness. Performance data indicates first-round hit probabilities of 70–80% at 2 km with stabilized fire control systems in controlled tests.

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