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Acts of Solomon
Acts of Solomon
Acts of Solomon
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The similarly named Biblical book is located at Song of Solomon.

The [Book of the] Acts of Solomon (Hebrew: ספר דברי שלמה, romanized: sêp̄er diḇrê Šəlōmōh) is a lost text referred to in 1 Kings 11:41, which reads:

And the rest of the acts of Solomon, and all that he did, and his wisdom, are they not written in the book of the acts of Solomon?

In 2 Chronicles 9:29–31 the names of the writers of the royal household record are given:

the history of Nathan the prophet, the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite, and the visions of Iddo the seer concerning Jeroboam the son of Nebat

The prophet Ahijah, who played the role of secretary in the administrative office of King Solomon, has authored this book. This book is referenced as "...the Prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite".[1]

The biblical prophet Iddo was the author of other lost texts.[citation needed]

The Geneva Bible editors suggested that it was lost during the exile in Babylon.[2]

This text is also referred to as the Book of the Annals of Solomon.[3][4]

See also

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References

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Acts of Solomon

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The Book of the Acts of Solomon is a lost ancient Israelite historical record, referenced in the Hebrew Bible as containing accounts of the deeds, achievements, and wisdom of King Solomon during his reign. This non-canonical work is cited explicitly in 1 Kings 11:41, which states: "Now the rest of the acts of Solomon, and all that he did, and his wisdom, are they not written in the book of the acts of Solomon?" A parallel reference in 2 Chronicles 9:29 attributes additional acts to other prophetic sources, such as the book of Nathan the prophet. No surviving manuscripts or fragments of the book exist today, and it is believed to have been one of several royal annals or chronicles compiled during or shortly after Solomon's lifetime in the 10th century BCE. Scholars regard the Book of the Acts of Solomon as a utilized by the Deuteronomistic historians who composed the Books of Kings, providing material for the narrative of Solomon's prosperous yet ultimately flawed rule, including his temple-building, international alliances, and accumulation of . The title follows a pattern seen in other lost biblical sources, such as the book of the annals of the kings of Judah for (1 Kings 14:29) and the chronicles of King David (1 Chronicles 27:24), suggesting it was part of a series of official court records documenting the reigns of Judahite and Israelite monarchs. While its exact contents remain speculative due to its disappearance—the exact circumstances of which are unknown, though it may have occurred during the Babylonian exile in the BCE—the reference implies it covered additional details beyond the accounts, potentially including proverbs, administrative records, or diplomatic correspondences not preserved in the biblical text. The loss of this book underscores the selective nature of the , where only portions of earlier historiographical traditions were incorporated into the final redaction of Kings and Chronicles around the 6th–5th centuries BCE. Modern biblical scholarship often reconstructs its influence through comparative analysis with parallel ancient Near Eastern royal inscriptions, highlighting Solomon's era as a pivotal period of cultural and economic flourishing in the . Despite its absence, the Book of the Acts of Solomon remains a key example of the extensive archival tradition behind the Hebrew Bible's historical narratives.

Biblical References

Reference in 1 Kings

The Book of 1 Kings concludes its account of King Solomon's reign with a reference to an external source known as the "Acts of Solomon" (or "Book of the Acts of Solomon") in verse 11:41. This verse serves as a transitional summary, encapsulating the breadth of Solomon's accomplishments and directing readers to a more comprehensive record. In the Hebrew Bible (Masoretic Text), the verse reads: "וְיֶתֶר דִּבְרֵי שְׁלֹמֹה וְכָל־אֲשֶׁר עָשָׂה וְחָכְמָתוֹ הֲלֹא־הֵם כְּתוּבִים עַל־סֵפֶר דִּבְרֵי שְׁלֹמֹה" (və-yeter divre šelōmō wə-kāl-’ăšer ‘āśâ wə-ḥokmātô hă-lō’-hēm kə-tû-vîm ‘al-sēper divre šelōmō), which translates literally as "And the rest of the words of Solomon, and all that he did, and his wisdom, are they not written on the book of the words of Solomon?" In major English translations, this is rendered with slight variations to convey the . The King James Version (KJV) states: "And the rest of the acts of , and all that he did, and his , are they not written in the of the acts of ?" The (NIV) offers: "As for the other events of ’s reign—all he did and the he displayed—are they not written in the of the annals of ?" Similarly, the (ESV) reads: "Now the rest of the acts of , and all that he did, and his , are they not written in the of the Acts of ?" These translations highlight the verse's function as an invitation to consult a purported royal for fuller details on 's deeds, , and unspecified "acts." This reference appears at the close of the Solomon narrative in 1 Kings 1–11, immediately following descriptions of his later years, including his foreign alliances, , and divine judgment, but before the account of his death and the succession of in verse 43. Positioned as a capstone to chapters 3–11, which detail Solomon's temple-building, administrative achievements, and personal failings, the verse encapsulates his legacy while signaling the end of the united monarchy's . The rhetorical purpose of 1 Kings 11:41 aligns with a common formulaic device in the Deuteronomistic History (encompassing through 2 Kings), where cross-references to lost sources like "the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah" or "" authenticate the biblical account and imply access to official annals. This convention underscores the historian's selectivity, presenting the biblical text as an interpretive summary drawn from broader archival materials rather than an exhaustive biography.

Reference in 2 Chronicles

In 2 Chronicles, the reference to the Acts of Solomon appears at the conclusion of the account of Solomon's reign, attributing the fuller record to multiple prophetic sources. This passage, 2 Chronicles 9:29–31, expands on the biblical tradition by naming specific authors associated with the lost document, thereby emphasizing through . The text states:
29 Now the rest of the acts of Solomon, from first to last, are they not written in the records of Nathan the prophet, in the prophecy of and in the visions of Iddo the seer concerning son of Nebat? 30 reigned in Jerusalem over all Israel forty years. 31 Then he rested with his ancestors and was buried in the city of David his father. And his son succeeded him as .
This formulation highlights the involvement of three prophetic figures: Nathan the prophet, known for his earlier rebuke of ; Ahijah the Shilonite, a prophet active during Solomon's time; and Iddo the seer, whose visions pertain to son of Nebat, foreshadowing the division of the kingdom. The inclusion of these names distinguishes the Chronicler's approach, portraying the Acts of Solomon not merely as royal annals but as prophetically endorsed records. Compared to the parallel in 1 Kings 11:41–43, which briefly notes the events in "the book of the annals of Solomon" without specifying authors, the 2 Chronicles reference broadens the scope by integrating prophetic attestation while similarly noting Solomon's forty-year reign, his burial in the City of David, and the succession by . This difference underscores the Chronicler's emphasis on prophetic authority over secular record-keeping. Within the Chronicler's overall history, such source citations, unique in their reliance on prophetic works, function to legitimize the narrative by linking it to divine messengers and reinforcing the enduring legitimacy of the Davidic dynasty as God's chosen line.

Historical and Textual Context

Proposed Authorship

The Book of the Acts of Solomon, referenced as a in the biblical narratives of Solomon's reign, is attributed in scriptural contexts to prophetic figures associated with the royal court. Specifically, 2 Chronicles 9:29 states that the remainder of Solomon's acts, , were recorded in the words of Nathan the prophet, the prophecy of , and the visions of Iddo the seer concerning son of Nebat. , a prophet from Shiloh active during Solomon's era (1 Kings 11:29–39; 14:1–18), is highlighted in these attributions, with some interpretations suggesting his role extended to documenting court events, possibly as a prophetic recorder akin to a secretary. This biblical linkage implies that the work drew from contemporary prophetic testimonies integrated into official records. Scholars hypothesize that the Acts was composed during Solomon's lifetime, approximately 970–931 BCE, by royal scribes maintaining annals similar to those in ancient Near Eastern traditions, such as Egyptian pharaonic inscriptions or Assyrian royal chronicles. These scribes, exemplified by figures like Elihoreph and Ahiah (sons of Shisha) listed as court recorders in 1 Kings 4:3, would have chronicled administrative, diplomatic, and military deeds in a systematic manner, forming the basis for later biblical compilations. This view positions the Acts as an official historiographic document produced under royal patronage, emphasizing factual reporting over theological elaboration. Alternative proposals suggest that while core elements originated in the tenth century BCE, the Acts as cited may reflect post-exilic redaction around the sixth century BCE, where compilers drew upon fragmented earlier to reconstruct Solomon's legacy amid the Babylonian destruction of archives. This compilation , part of the broader Deuteronomistic History, integrated prophetic and scribal materials into a cohesive source, though the original's anonymity persists due to losses during .

Circumstances of Loss

The 1599 notes on 1 Kings 11:41 propose that the Book of the Acts of Solomon was lost during the of Judah, a period initiated by the destruction of in 586 BCE. This event, led by King , involved the sacking and burning of the city, including , which likely served as a repository for royal and religious records. The ensuing scattered Judahite elites and their archives, leading to the dispersal or destruction of perishable documents on or , with no systematic preservation effort amid the chaos of and forced relocation. This loss aligns with the broader fate of many ancient Near Eastern texts, which often perished due to invasions, accidental fires, deliberate destruction during warfare, or simple neglect over centuries. While durable clay tablets from Mesopotamian libraries sometimes survived fires by hardening in the flames—as seen in the partial preservation of Ashurbanipal's collection in —Judahite writings, lacking such media, were more vulnerable, with only fragments occasionally incorporated into later compilations like the biblical histories. The Babylonian campaign exemplifies how imperial conquests routinely obliterated local scribal traditions, reducing vast corpora to scattered remnants or complete oblivion. No extant manuscripts of the Acts of Solomon have been identified, and it receives no direct quotations or references as a distinct work in key ancient sources. , in his (Book 8), recounts Solomon's reign drawing from biblical material but omits any mention of consulting the Acts separately. Similarly, the Dead Sea Scrolls corpus, spanning biblical and sectarian texts from the Second Temple period, contains no fragments attributable to this book. , including the and Midrashim, also preserves no citations or allusions to its content beyond canonical echoes, underscoring its irretrievable disappearance. The biblical authors' reliance on the Acts as a source implies partial preservation through integration into 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles.

Inferred Content and Purpose

Details Drawn from Solomon's Reign

The Book of the Acts of Solomon is explicitly referenced in 1 Kings 11:41 as a source preserving "the rest of the acts of Solomon, all that he did, and his ," indicating it served as a comprehensive record of the king's reign beyond the summaries provided in the canonical texts. This lost work likely expanded on key biblical anecdotes exemplifying Solomon's divinely granted , such as his renowned judgment in the dispute between two mothers over a child (1 Kings 3:16–28) and the elaborate dedication of the First Temple, where he invoked God's presence amid sacrifices and prayers (1 Kings 8). Scholars infer that these episodes, presented summarily in the , drew from the Acts' more detailed narratives to highlight Solomon's judicial acumen and pious . Administrative feats of Solomon's rule, only briefly outlined in the biblical accounts, would have formed a core component of the Acts, providing fuller documentation of his organizational prowess and economic expansions. These include the establishment of extensive trade networks, such as alliances with Tyre for timber and gold shipments from (1 Kings 9:26–28; 10:11), the implementation of forced labor systems to support major construction projects like the temple, , and fortifications (1 Kings 5:13–18; 9:15–23), and his numerous diplomatic marriages that secured political ties, including to the daughter of (1 Kings 3:1; 11:1). The texts summarize these as markers of Solomon's in and prosperity, but the Acts presumably offered chronological with specifics on implementation, outcomes, and royal decrees, reflecting a scribal tradition in the court. This structure aligns with ancient Near Eastern royal annals, which systematically chronicled monarchs' building initiatives, such as temple and constructions, alongside diplomatic successes like treaties and tribute exchanges, as seen in Egyptian pharaonic records that detailed similar feats under rulers like . In 2 Chronicles 9:29, supplementary prophetic sources concerning Solomon are referenced, indicating additional revelatory elements in the broader source tradition for his reign.

Role as a Source for Biblical Historians

The Book of the Acts of Solomon is recognized as a key source within the Deuteronomistic History, serving as one of several "source books" that supplied raw material for the biblical narrative of Solomon's reign in 1 Kings 3–11. Alongside prophetic works such as the history of Nathan the prophet, the prophecy of , and the visions of Iddo the seer, it likely contained administrative records, court annals, and anecdotal accounts that informed descriptions of Solomon's wisdom, building projects, and governance. The Deuteronomistic Historian explicitly references it in 1 Kings 11:41, indicating reliance on this document to compile a cohesive account that integrates historical details with theological evaluation. Evidence of the Deuteronomistic Historian's selective use of the Acts appears in the abbreviated and theologized treatment of key events, where neutral or expansive original material was reshaped to align with Deuteronomistic themes of covenant fidelity and . For example, the depiction of Solomon's in 1 Kings 11—portraying his foreign marriages and idolatrous practices as precipitating the kingdom's division—reflects an interpretive overlay that likely condensed or amplified details from the source to underscore moral causation, rather than presenting a straightforward . This redactional approach prioritized ideological coherence over exhaustive reporting, transforming the Acts' presumed factual base into a cautionary framework for Judah's monarchy. In 2 Chronicles 1–9, the Chronicler adapted elements traceable to the Acts of Solomon via the Deuteronomistic precursor, harmonizing them with prophetic traditions to craft an idealized image of the king focused on , , and temple dedication. While omitting unflattering aspects like to highlight Solomon's in divine worship, this adaptation drew on the source's administrative and motifs—such as relations and judicial decisions—to emphasize theological virtues over personal flaws. The resulting narrative thus serves a post-exilic agenda of encouragement, repurposing earlier source material for communal edification. The original loss of the Acts of Solomon precludes direct comparison to verify the extent of these biblical adaptations.

Scholarly Interpretations

Traditional Views on Composition

Traditional Jewish and Christian interpreters, drawing from the biblical references in 1 Kings 11:41 and 2 Chronicles 9:29, regarded the Acts of Solomon as a contemporary historical record compiled during or shortly after the king's reign in the 10th century BCE, potentially authored or contributed to by prophets such as Nathan, , or Iddo the seer. This perspective, rooted in , viewed the work as an official court document preserving of Solomon's deeds, wisdom, and administrative achievements, without questioning its antiquity or integrity as a firsthand source. Rabbinic traditions, while not extensively commenting on the lost text itself, associated figures like Ahijah with extended lifespans overlapping Solomon's era, implying prophetic oversight of such records. In 19th-century , scholars like built on this foundation by classifying the Acts of Solomon as a Judahite originating from the united monarchy period, likely maintained by state scribes to document royal actions, temple construction, and internal governance. emphasized its pre-exilic character, seeing it as one of several official annals selectively incorporated into the Books of Kings, with a focus on terse, factual notices rather than theological elaboration. This approach retained the traditional dating to the BCE while integrating it into a broader analysis of Hebrew historical literature's development from oral to written forms. A key consensus in these traditional views holds that the Acts served a propagandistic purpose, portraying Solomon as an exemplar of divine and to legitimize the Davidic dynasty and celebrate the united kingdom's . Details of his building projects, international alliances, and judicial prowess, as inferred from biblical summaries, underscored themes of royal magnificence and Yahweh's favor, aligning with the text's role in fostering .

Modern Theories of Assyrian Influence

Modern scholars have proposed that the Acts of Solomon reflects significant influence from Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions, particularly those of (r. 859–824 BCE), reimagining as an idealized Assyrian-style ruler whose exploits mirror Assyrian imperial narratives. Russell E. Gmirkin argues that the content of 1 Kings 3–11, attributed to the Acts of Solomon, draws directly from Assyrian annals such as the Kurkh Monolith and Black Obelisk, portraying Solomon's reign as a legendary empire-building endeavor south of the . This theory posits that the biblical text adapts Assyrian motifs to elevate a historical Assyrian conqueror into a foundational figure for Judahite identity, with the Acts serving as a Neo-Assyrian composition celebrating Shalmaneser III's victories. However, Gmirkin's interpretation remains a minority view, as most biblical scholars consider the Acts of Solomon to be an early royal chronicle from the Israelite or Judahite monarchy period, rather than a later Assyrian-influenced work. Key parallels include the depiction of imperial boundaries extending from the River to the borders of , echoing Shalmaneser III's claimed dominion over vast western territories as recorded in his inscriptions. Architectural descriptions in the Acts, such as the grandeur of and palace complex, show influences from Assyrian palace-temple designs, comparable to Sennacherib's (r. 705–681 BCE) constructions at , including cedar imports, forced labor levies, and multi-chambered layouts. Tribute scenes further align with Assyrian iconography, such as the Black Obelisk's reliefs of subjugated kings presenting gifts, which parallel the biblical accounts of receiving from regional vassals like the queen of Sheba. These connections imply that the Acts of Solomon was composed in the Neo-Assyrian province of during the 7th–6th century BCE by elites influenced by Assyrian administrative and literary traditions, rather than as a contemporary 10th-century BCE record of a historical Solomonic . Gmirkin suggests this work originated around 700 BCE to commemorate Shalmaneser III's legacy amid Assyrian provincial governance, with its motifs later incorporated into Judahite historiography during the emergence of Judah as an independent kingdom under Assyrian overlordship. This late composition challenges traditional notions of Solomonic , framing the Acts as a product of rather than authentic royal , thereby revising earlier scholarly views on its antiquity.

References

  1. https://biblehub.com/1_kings/11-41.htm
  2. https://openmedia.yale.edu/projects/iphone/departments/rlst/rlst145/transcript14.html
  3. https://www.academia.edu/118646568/Finkelstein_I_2021_The_Acts_of_Solomon_The_Impact_of_Jeroboam_II_of_Israel_and_Manasseh_of_Judah_In_Finkelstein_I_Ed_Essays_on_Biblical_Historiography_From_Jeroboam_II_to_John_Hyrcanus_I_Mohr_Siebeck_475_484
  4. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Chronicles%209%3A29-31&version=NIV
  5. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%2011%3A41-43&version=NIV
  6. https://enterthebible.org/courses/2-chronicles/lessons/theological-themes-in-2-chronicles
  7. https://biblehub.com/2_chronicles/9-29.htm
  8. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kings-book-of
  9. https://bible.org/article/introduction-books-first-and-second-kings
  10. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/writing-and-rewriting-the-story-of-solomon-in-ancient-israel/introduction-sources-and-historical-background/4FF90CAEEB691DEFF58C3EAB2FF766D5
  11. https://hawramani.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/the-1599-geneva-bible-notes.pdf
  12. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-near-eastern-world/how-bad-was-the-babylonian-exile/
  13. https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/learn-about-the-scrolls/scrolls-content
  14. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%2011%3A41&version=ESV
  15. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%203%3A16-28&version=ESV
  16. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%208&version=ESV
  17. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781575065694-011/html
  18. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%209%3A26-28%3B10%3A11&version=ESV
  19. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%205%3A13-18%3B9%3A15-23&version=ESV
  20. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%203%3A1%3B11%3A1&version=ESV
  21. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstreams/6cc7821c-2038-4deb-a290-28244921fb5f/download
  22. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Chronicles%209%3A29&version=ESV
  23. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/701707
  24. https://scholarlypublishingcollective.org/sblpress/jbl/article/116/4/700/183132/The-Deuteronomistic-Critique-of-Solomon-A-Response
  25. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3266554
  26. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rz8m794/qt9rz8m794_noSplash_f8a80481bdbf00740ba1d13f978daa2a.pdf
  27. https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ahijah-shilonite
  28. https://www.agathonlibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Wellhousen-Israel.pdf
  29. https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/biblical-narratives-archaeology-and-historicity-9780567686572/
  30. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338310709_%27Solomon%27_Shalmaneser_III_and_the_Emergence_of_Judah_as_an_Independent_Kingdom
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