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Adobe Jenson
Adobe Jenson
Adobe Jenson
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Adobe Jenson
CategorySerif
ClassificationOld-style
Venetian
DesignerRobert Slimbach
FoundryAdobe Type
Date released1996
Design based onNicolas Jenson

Adobe Jenson is an old-style serif typeface drawn for Adobe Systems by its chief type designer Robert Slimbach. Its Roman styles are based on a text face cut by Nicolas Jenson in Venice around 1470, and its italics are based on those created by Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi fifty years later.

Jenson is an organic design, with a low x-height. It is considered a highly readable typeface and is accordingly often used in book design for body text.

Development

[edit]
A specimen of Nicolas Jenson's roman typeface, from the "Laertis" published in Venice ca 1475.
Optical sizing in Adobe Jenson

Adobe Jenson was first released in 1996 as a multiple master font.[1] It was created using sophisticated interpolation or multiple-master technology, to create a range of weights and optical sizes suitable for different text sizes.[2] This partial automation of font creation was intended to allow a gradual trend in styles from solid, chunky designs for caption-size small print to more graceful and slender designs for headings.[3][a] It is now sold in the standard OpenType font format under the name Adobe Jenson Pro.[6] Jenson's type used an 'M' with two-way top serifs and a 'Q' with a curled tail, both now not commonly seen; the default characters are more contemporary forms but both were included as alternate characters.[7]

Adobe Jenson Pro

[edit]

Adobe Jenson Pro is an OpenType update of the original family. The font family supports Adobe CE, ISO-Adobe (later Adobe Western 2), dingbat character sets. The family comes with 4 weights each in roman and italic, and 4 optical sizes. Supported OpenType features include Stylistic alternates, ligatures, proportional numbers, old style figures, small caps, subscripts and superscripts, ordinals, and swashes (italic fonts only).

Optical sizes Caption Regular Subhead Display
Intended point sizes 6–9 9–13.4 13.4–21.9 21.9–72
[edit]

Many other typefaces have been cut based on the work of Jenson. William Morris's Golden Type created the trend in the 1890s; his design is known for its emboldening of Jenson's original design, giving it something of the feel of blackletter.[8] It is named for The Golden Legend, which was intended to be the first book printed using it.[9][10] Popular since the 1930s, Bruce Rogers' Centaur is a much more slender revival in the same style. American Type Founders' Cloister Old Style was created by its design team led by Morris Fuller Benton around 1915, during the same period as Centaur.[11][12] Ludlow created another release with italic under the direction of Ernst F. Detterer and Robert Hunter Middleton in the 1920s.[13] American Type Founders also issued a very eccentric[according to whom?] Jenson revival inspired by the work of Morris which is little-known today.[14]Tobias Frere-Jones created a revival in 1994 named Hightower Text that is bundled with some Microsoft software, adding his own italic design.[15]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Adobe Jenson

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Adobe Jenson is a family designed by and released by in 1996 as part of its Adobe Originals collection. It serves as a digital revival of the historic Venetian old-style originally developed by printer Nicolas Jenson around 1470, with Roman styles closely modeled on Jenson's balanced letterforms and robust serifs, while the italic variants draw from the designs of calligrapher Ludovico degli Arrighi circa 1520. The typeface exemplifies Adobe's commitment to typographic excellence through its Adobe Originals program, launched in 1989 to produce high-quality, technically advanced fonts for professional use. Adobe Jenson Pro, its OpenType-enhanced version, incorporates extensive language support for Latin-based scripts, advanced typographic features such as ligatures, oldstyle figures, and small capitals, making it versatile for , work, and digital publishing. Its elegant proportions and readability have established it as a modern standard for emulating Renaissance-era printing aesthetics while adapting to contemporary needs.

Historical Background

Nicolas Jenson's Original Typeface

Nicolas Jenson, a French engraver born around 1420, was dispatched by King Charles VII in 1458 to Mainz to learn the art of printing from pioneers like Johannes Gutenberg. By the late 1460s, Jenson had relocated to Venice, where he established one of the city's earliest printing offices in 1470, becoming a pivotal figure in the burgeoning Venetian print industry. His skills in metalworking, honed at French mints, positioned him uniquely to innovate in type design and production during this period. Around 1470, Jenson cut his groundbreaking Roman typeface, debuting it in the printing of of Caesarea's De Evangelica Praeparatione, a theological work that marked a departure from the dominant styles. This typeface featured even stroke widths with subtle variations, bracketed serifs on letters like E, F, and T, and proportions derived from classical Roman inscriptions and contemporary humanistic manuscripts, rather than the angular Gothic scripts prevalent in . Distinctive elements included long ascenders and for enhanced rhythm, a straight-stemmed lowercase h, and an R with an elephant-tusk curve, all contributing to a harmonious and legible . The production of Jenson's type involved meticulous hand-cutting of steel punches, which were struck into copper matrices to cast individual metal letters in a setting, a labor-intensive process that underscored the transition from manuscript traditions to printed humanistic scripts in Renaissance Italy. This method allowed for consistent across large editions, facilitating the spread of classical texts and improving overall book accessibility. Jenson's typeface appeared in several influential early imprints, including the 1471 edition of Quintilian's and the 1476 Italian translation of Pliny the Elder's Historia Naturalis, edited by Cristoforo Landino, which showcased its clarity in rendering complex scientific content over hundreds of pages. These works, among over 150 titles produced by Jenson's press before his death in 1480, elevated readability and influenced by promoting spacious, balanced compositions that prioritized text flow. Jenson's innovations laid foundational principles later echoed in modern revivals such as Adobe Jenson.

Legacy in Typography

Jenson's roman typeface, introduced in Venice in 1470, profoundly shaped the evolution of printing during the Renaissance by providing a model for subsequent roman designs that emphasized humanistic proportions derived from Carolingian minuscule scripts. Printers across Europe rapidly adopted and adapted his type, with approximately 40 printing offices using versions of it before 1500, spreading its influence from Italy to northern workshops. Notably, Aldus Manutius commissioned punchcutter Francesco Griffo in 1495 to create a refined roman for his Aldine Press, resulting in the 1496 De Aetna typeface—a narrower iteration with a higher x-height and thinner serifs that built directly on Jenson's framework while enhancing compactness for portable editions. Griffo further extended this legacy around 1501 by designing the first italic typeface for Manutius's Virgil, introducing slanted forms that complemented roman types and facilitated marginal annotations in scholarly texts. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Jenson's design inspired revivals amid growing interest in historical typography, particularly within the Arts and Crafts movement's push against industrial standardization. , seeking to emulate medieval craftsmanship, created the Golden Type in 1890 for his , directly basing it on Jenson's 15th-century Venetian roman to achieve a balanced, readable form suitable for fine book printing. This typeface debuted in works like The Nature of Gothic (1892) and symbolized the movement's ideals of harmony between text and ornament, influencing revivalists who prioritized artisanal quality over . Morris's adaptation critiqued contemporary types for their unevenness, reinforcing Jenson's principles as a corrective to Victorian excesses. Jenson's innovations established the "old-style" serif category, characterized by bracketed s, moderate contrast, and even stroke weights that prioritize , , and proportion—foundational elements for modern book faces. His even typographic color and uncompressed letterforms set a standard for across pages, influencing generations of designers to balance letter shapes with surrounding space. This category's enduring appeal lies in its classical restraint, as seen in later interpretations that maintain Jenson's severe, pure forms without excessive modulation. Culturally, Jenson's work marked a pivotal shift in post-medieval from gothic blackletter's density—associated with ecclesiastical texts—to a secular, classical roman style that reflected and the revival of antiquity. By aligning type with traditions of ancient authors, his designs facilitated the of secular and , contributing to the boom that produced over 35,000 works by and democratized knowledge beyond monastic control. This transition symbolized broader cultural emancipation, positioning as a tool for intellectual progress in an era of exploration and reform.

Development and Design

Creation by Robert Slimbach

, Adobe's principal type designer since joining the company in 1987, played a central role in the development of Adobe Jenson as part of the Adobe Originals program. This initiative, launched in 1989, aimed to produce high-quality original digital typefaces that combined historical inspiration with modern technical requirements for . Slimbach's work on Adobe Jenson emerged from his expertise in reviving classical forms, building on earlier projects like Adobe Garamond to create fonts suitable for contemporary text setting. The project for Adobe Jenson began in the early 1990s, reflecting 's commitment to interpreting typography through digital means. Slimbach's motivation was to digitally revive Nicolas Jenson's 15th-century roman typeface for modern use, ensuring legibility and elegance in screen and print applications while preserving the original's humanistic proportions. He drew directly from historical specimens to capture authentic details like stroke weights and letterforms. Adobe Jenson was released in 1996 as a multiple-master font family, allowing users to interpolate between weights for flexible design options. The initial composition included four Roman weights—Light, Regular, Semibold, and Bold—along with matching italics, providing a cohesive set for book and editorial . This structure emphasized optical adjustments for varying sizes, ensuring the typeface's historical fidelity adapted seamlessly to digital environments.

Key Design Influences and Process

Robert Slimbach drew primary inspiration for Adobe Jenson's Roman styles from Nicolas Jenson's 1470 typeface as seen in Venetian incunabula, such as the printer's editions of classical texts produced in , which exemplified early humanistic proportions derived from scripts. For the italic styles, Slimbach analyzed the slanted, calligraphic designs of Ludovico degli Arrighi from the 1520s, incorporating their fluid, chancery-based flair to complement the Roman forms while maintaining historical authenticity. The process began with detailed analysis of these historical sources, involving hand-drawn preliminary sketches informed by Slimbach's expertise to capture the organic irregularities of the originals. Slimbach then employed techniques to generate multiple weights, ensuring optical consistency across the family by adjusting stroke variations for even color and balanced , which contributes to in extended text. To adapt the for digital environments, he implemented precise hinting instructions to optimize rasterization on screens and low-resolution printers, addressing pixel grid alignment while preserving the analog warmth of the source materials. Innovations in Adobe Jenson included modernized letter proportions to enhance at small sizes, such as subtle refinements to counter widths and ascender/ lengths, without altering the typeface's core character. Slimbach deliberately retained authentic irregularities from the originals, like asymmetric serifs on letters such as the 'M' and 'R', to evoke the handcrafted quality of incunabula printing. These adaptations balanced historical fidelity with practical digital utility, setting a standard for revival typefaces. Throughout development, Slimbach collaborated with 's type design team, incorporating feedback on consistency and vertical metrics during iterative testing on laser printers and early digital publishing software like Adobe interpreters. This team input ensured the performed reliably across output devices, from print to emerging screen applications in the mid-1990s.

Typeface Characteristics

Roman Styles

The Roman styles of Adobe Jenson exhibit moderate contrast between thick and thin strokes, bracketed serifs, and vertical stress, faithfully reviving the aesthetic of Nicolas Jenson's 1470 Venetian roman typeface while incorporating modern refinements for digital use. These characteristics contribute to a warm, humanistic quality that emphasizes and historical authenticity in text setting. The family offers four weights—Light, Regular, Semibold, and Bold—with gradual thickening across them to preserve the even color and of the original design, allowing for subtle variations in emphasis without disrupting the overall . Key letterforms include a classic single-story lowercase a in traditional roman form and a double-story g, alongside elegant capitals designed with optical adjustments for proportional balance. applied subtle refinements, such as varying ascender and lengths and x-heights, to ensure even spacing and visual , particularly through optical sizing that adapts the design for different point sizes—thicker serifs and larger x-heights for smaller caption sizes (6–9 pt), and finer details with higher contrast for display (24+ pt). These upright forms are optimized for book text composition, delivering a readable texture with a classical warmth especially effective at 9–12 pt sizes, where the moderate contrast and bracketed serifs create a cohesive page appearance. The design's structure supports extended reading, with the vertical stress and refined proportions evoking the legibility of printing traditions.

Italic and Complementary Styles

The italic styles of Adobe Jenson were drawn by to complement the Roman designs, drawing their historical basis from the chancery cursive developed by Ludovico degli Arrighi in the early , rather than the more angular obliques typical of Nicolas Jenson's era. Arrighi's influential work, including his 1522 manual La Operina, showcased a fluid, cursive script used in papal chancery documents, which Slimbach adapted to create a cohesive pairing with the upright Romans inspired by Jenson's 1470s types. This choice reflects a deliberate , prioritizing typographic harmony over strict historical fidelity, as true italics emerged later in printing history. Key design traits of the italics include a subtle slant that evokes the natural flow of , with moderately compressed letterforms to ensure smooth text flow and readability in extended passages. Calligraphic swashes appear on select characters, such as the extended tails of the 'f' and 'j', adding expressive flourishes while maintaining restraint suitable for contexts. These elements draw from Arrighi's cursive elegance, blending vitality with modern precision in Slimbach's digital interpretation. Ligatures like 'fi' and 'ff' are incorporated to enhance visual cohesion and prevent awkward overlaps, contributing to the overall refined appearance. The italic weights are optically scaled to match their Roman counterparts across the family—from to Bold—ensuring balanced contrast and when alternating between upright and slanted text. This integration preserves the old-style serifs' characteristic harmony, where the italics serve not as mere obliques but as a dynamic complement that heightens emphasis without disrupting the typeface's classical poise. In practice, these features allow the italics to add expressiveness in and editorial , reinforcing Adobe Jenson's role as a versatile revival for contemporary use.

Variants and Technical Features

Adobe Jenson Pro Enhancements

Adobe Jenson Pro, released in 2004 as part of 's expanded Pro typeface family, represents a significant upgrade from the original 1996 Multiple Master version by converting the design to the format. This shift enabled cross-platform compatibility between Macintosh and Windows systems, while incorporating encoding for broader character set support and enhanced typographic functionality. The Pro version maintains the core aesthetic inspired by Nicolas Jenson's 15th-century roman and Ludovico degli Arrighi's italic but adds layers of refinement tailored for professional digital composition. Key enhancements include the addition of small capitals, oldstyle and lining numerals, expert ligatures, and stylistic alternates to promote historical accuracy, such as optional forms and variants for italics. These features—encompassing fractions, superscripts, inferiors, and an "all alternates" option—allow designers greater flexibility in rendering text with period-appropriate flourishes or modern adaptations. The family also supports extensive language coverage, including ISO , Adobe Central European, and various Windows and Mac code pages, facilitating use in multilingual projects across Western European languages. Technically, Adobe Jenson Pro introduces variable optical sizes across four masters—Caption (6–9 pt), Regular (9–14.1 pt), Subhead (14.1–24 pt), and Display (24+ pt)—with adjustments like tighter letterspacing and finer serifs at larger sizes for optimal legibility and aesthetic integrity at different scales. Each style uses a single master file structure with embedded bitmaps for small point sizes to ensure crisp rendering on screen and in print. The glyph complement expands dramatically from the original's approximately 200 glyphs to 757 per font, incorporating diacritics, alternates, and expert characters, alongside extensive kerning pairs for precise spacing.

Availability and Licensing

Adobe Jenson was initially distributed in 1996 via Type Manager () software, which facilitated the management and rendering of Type 1 fonts on early digital systems. Since the , following Adobe's acquisition and integration of Typekit, the typeface has been primarily available through the subscription service, providing seamless access for users worldwide. In its current form, Adobe Jenson is offered as Pro files, which can be downloaded for desktop applications, embedded in web projects via CSS, and integrated into mobile apps with appropriate licensing. These formats are included as part of subscriptions since the service's launch in 2013, allowing subscribers to activate the font across devices without additional per-font purchases. The licensing operates on a subscription-based model, charged per user or seat, enabling both personal and commercial use including print, digital design, and web publishing. Older purchases, such as those from collections like Font Folio prior to June 2022, may include perpetual licenses, though embedding restrictions apply: for instance, fonts can be embedded in PDFs for viewing and printing but not for editable text extraction without further permissions. Adobe periodically revises Adobe Jenson for bug fixes and enhanced functionality, ensuring the typeface remains robust for contemporary workflows while maintaining its historical integrity.

Usage and Reception

Notable Applications

Adobe Jenson has found prominent use in , particularly for literary and scholarly publications where its classical readability and organic forms enhance long-form text. In the 2022 illustrated encyclopedia Tanatopedia: 101 verbetes sobre a morte, a crowdfunded project exploring themes of through 101 entries, Adobe Jenson was selected for the main text setting, paired with Cloister Initials for drop caps to create a sober, elegant layout organized in columns. Similarly, the 2018 philosophical volume Learning to Die by and Jan Zwicky, published by the University of Regina Press, employed Adobe Jenson across multiple optical sizes for the front and back covers, complementing the book's introspective essays on ecology and mortality. In fine press and exhibition contexts, Adobe Jenson's refined proportions have been leveraged for limited-edition works. Designer incorporated it into the 2007 exhibition catalog Illustrating the Good Life: The Pissarros' Eragny Press, 1894–1914, produced by the in an edition of 400 copies; here, it was set alongside Epigrammata to evoke the historical elegance of the Eragny Press's wood-engraved books and prints. This application highlights Adobe Jenson's role in modern revivals influenced by earlier Monotype interpretations of Jensonian forms, but distinctly adapted for digital precision in contemporary letterpress-inspired projects. The typeface's versatility extends to through its enhancements, enabling applications in web documentation and e-book production. itself has featured Jenson variants in its type library previews and software guides since the late , showcasing its suitability for screen-based classical .

Critical Reception and Influence

Upon its release in 1996, Adobe Jenson received positive attention from typographic experts for its faithful yet modern interpretation of letterforms. Christopher Burke, in a review published in the Bulletin of the , praised the typeface for its careful revival of Nicolas Jenson's Roman designs combined with Ludovico degli Arrighi's italics, noting its balance of historical authenticity and suitability for digital composition. As part of 's Originals program, Adobe Jenson earned recognition as an industry benchmark for high-quality historical revivals, alongside works like Adobe Garamond and Minion. The program's emphasis on rigorous research into original sources and advanced technical features, such as multiple master variations, positioned Adobe Jenson as a model for subsequent digital type design. Adobe Jenson's impact extends to establishing standards for digital historical revivals through its integration of extended character sets, small capitals, and old-style figures, which enhanced flexibility for professional text setting. This approach inspired broader typographic practices, as seen in its ongoing use in and branding, such as the visual identity for Cachos da Dhara. In contemporary assessments, Adobe Jenson continues to be valued for its and in print and digital media, reflecting the enduring legacy of Adobe Originals in maintaining typographic quality amid evolving technologies.

Direct Revivals of Jenson

One of the earliest 20th-century direct revivals of Nicolas Jenson's Roman typeface was , designed by Bruce Rogers in 1914 and first cast in metal by American Type Founders in 1915, with a Monotype version following in 1929. Rogers drew inspiration from Jenson's 1470 edition, enlarging and tracing the original characters to emphasize a noble, bookish quality suitable for fine printing, capturing the sculptural liveliness and slight irregularities in terminals and crossbars characteristic of Jenson's work. Bitstream released its digital revival, Venetian 301, in the 1980s, adapting Jenson's proportions for and early computer use, preserving the original's low and bracketed serifs while smoothing transitions for screen readability—differing from punchcut versions like through its vector-based precision and lack of metal-type idiosyncrasies. These revivals maintain Jenson's essential proportions, such as the sturdy vertical stress and humanist axis tilt, but diverge in complementary italics; for instance, is typically paired with Arrighi, a slanted italic designed by Frederic Warde in the late based on 16th-century Venetian chancery hands, providing a more fluid contrast than Jenson's original non-italic companion faces. Many of these direct revivals, including digital adaptations of and Venetian 301, are now accessible through commercial libraries like MyFonts and , though unlike Adobe Jenson's proprietary model, open-source alternatives inspired by Jenson's lineage appear in platforms such as for broader, free distribution.

Comparable Old-Style

Adobe Garamond, designed by and released by Adobe in 1989, represents a prominent old-style that echoes Jenson's humanistic warmth while introducing subtle refinements derived from 16th-century French punchcutter Claude Garamond's work. Unlike Jenson's evenly modulated strokes, Adobe Garamond exhibits slightly higher contrast between thick and thin lines, enhancing readability in extended body text, yet it retains bracketed and a calligraphic axis tilt for a comparable feel. This draws from historical specimens at the Plantin-Moretus Museum, adapting them for digital composition without direct reference to Jenson's Venetian origins. Bembo, developed by the Monotype Corporation between 1928 and 1929, offers another analog in the old-style category, rooted in the 1495 Venetian roman types cut by Francesco Griffo for Aldus Manutius's press. It shares Jenson's low stroke modulation and humanistic proportions, with serifs that bracket gently into stems, evoking the fluidity of 15th-century incunabula printing, though its forms are interpreted through early 20th-century metal type production for greater evenness in line flow. Bembo's italics, more upright than Jenson's, provide a restrained elegance suited to literary works, distinguishing it as a bridge between Venetian humanism and later transitional styles. These typefaces exemplify the broader old-style serif family, characterized by low contrast, bracketed serifs, and proportions inspired by Renaissance calligraphy, which prioritize legibility and warmth in book typography over the sharper geometries of later classifications. Differences, such as Garamond's steeper italic slant or Bembo's refined counters, highlight independent evolutions from shared historical DNA, allowing designers to select alternatives based on specific text demands like subtle emphasis or historical authenticity. Among modern open-source options, —initiated by Georg Duffner in the early 2010s and expanded through community contributions—revives 16th-century forms with Jenson-like warmth, featuring subtle stroke variations and open counters ideal for immersive body text in digital publishing. Similarly, Crimson Text, designed by Sebastian Kosch and first released in 2010 under an open license, draws from old-style traditions akin to Venetian romans, delivering a soft, readable texture for book production that rivals Jenson's inviting without proprietary restrictions. By 2025, these accessible alternatives have enriched the old-style ecosystem, enabling broader experimentation in web and print media while upholding the category's emphasis on humanistic .

References

  1. https://typofonderie.com/gazette/jenson-first-roman-types
  2. https://fonts.adobe.com/fonts/adobe-jenson
  3. https://styleguide.lluh.org/graphic-identity-guide/guidelines/design-specifications/typography
  4. https://archive.tdc.org/articles/nicolas-jensons-typographic-contributions/
  5. https://articles.c-a-s-t.com/nicolas-jenson-and-the-success-of-his-roman-type-9f0afeba4103
  6. https://hob.gseis.ucla.edu/Spotlights/poutasse.html
  7. https://articles.c-a-s-t.com/the-influence-of-jenson-on-the-design-of-romans-e86afdbf9b94
  8. https://williammorrissociety.org/the-ideal-book-william-morris-and-the-kelmscott-press/
  9. https://blog.typekit.com/2012/03/02/robert-slimbach-25-years/
  10. https://typenetwork.com/articles/the-influence-of-adobe-originals
  11. https://blog.typekit.com/2014/06/20/the-adobe-originals-silver-anniversary-story-the-originals-team-kicks-into-high-gear/
  12. https://blog.typekit.com/2014/08/20/the-adobe-originals-silver-anniversary-story-a-community-perspective-on-the-originals-program/
  13. http://www.birminghamtimes.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Adobe-Jenson-Pro-Read-Me.pdf
  14. https://typeforge.wordpress.com/2020/05/08/jenson/
  15. https://www.thebookdesigner.com/3-typefaces-for-book-interiors-from-robert-slimbach-of-adobe-systems/comment-page-1/
  16. https://pampatype.com/blog/type-design-revivalism
  17. https://gwern.net/doc/design/typography/2009-slimbach.pdf
  18. https://historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=2038
  19. https://www.myfonts.com/collections/jenson-font-adobe/
  20. https://blog.typekit.com/2010/12/22/an-early-holiday-present/
  21. https://helpx.adobe.com/fonts/using/font-licensing.html
  22. https://fontsinuse.com/uses/48141/tanatopedia-101-verbetes-sobre-a-morte
  23. https://fontsinuse.com/uses/44683/learning-to-die-by-robert-bringhurst-and-jan-zwicky
  24. https://www.grolierclub.org/Default.aspx?p=DynamicModule&pageid=384829&ssid=322450&vnf=1
  25. https://www.amazon.ae/Illustrating-Good-Life-Pissarros-Exhibition/dp/0910672717
  26. https://www.typeculture.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/tc_article_23.pdf
  27. https://fontsinuse.com/uses/36239/cachos-da-dhara-visual-identity
  28. https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2006/09/bruce-rogers-centaur
  29. https://newcriterion.com/dispatch/origins-typographic-species/
  30. https://luc.devroye.org/myfonts--jenson/
  31. https://www.myfonts.com/a/font/content/font-field-guide/centaur/
  32. https://www.myfonts.com/fonts/mti/centaur/
  33. https://fonts.adobe.com/fonts/adobe-garamond
  34. https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=5141
  35. https://typofonderie.com/gazette/garamond-french-typeface-par-excellence
  36. https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/typography/font-list/bembo
  37. https://cba-design.com/italy/en/insights/bembo/
  38. https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co8716701/pattern-for-bembo-typeface-series-number-270
  39. https://www.myfonts.com/pages/fontscom-learning-fontology-level-1-type-families-oldstyle
  40. https://supercharge.design/blog/typography-classification-a-guide
  41. https://fonts.google.com/specimen/EB%2BGaramond
  42. https://fonts.google.com/specimen/Crimson%2BText
  43. https://github.com/skosch/Crimson
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