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Allosauridae
Allosauridae
Allosauridae
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Allosaurids
Temporal range: Bathonian-Tithonian, 174.1–143.1 Ma
An A. fragilis skeletal mount, at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Clade: Dinosauria
Clade: Saurischia
Clade: Theropoda
Superfamily: †Allosauroidea
Family: †Allosauridae
Marsh, 1878
Type species
†Allosaurus fragilis
Marsh, 1877
Genera[1]
Synonyms
  • Antrodemidae Marsh, 1878
  • Labrosauridae Marsh, 1882

Allosauridae is an extinct family of medium to large bipedal, carnivorous allosauroid theropod dinosaurs from the Late Jurassic.[2] Allosauridae is a fairly old taxonomic group, having been first named by the American paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878.[3]

Description

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Allosaurids have a general anatomy typical of other neotheropod dinosaurs, contributing to the difficulty in defining the family's membership. A typical 8m specimen of Allosaurus fragilis had a skull of about 0.85m. The premaxilla has five teeth and the maxilla usually around 16. The dentary also typically has 16 teeth. All teeth are serrated and continuously replaced throughout the life of the animal. Allosaurid skulls are characterized by two sets of crests formed by the nasal and lacrimal bones respectively. These crests would have been covered by keratin sheathes.[4] The skull also exhibits features consistent with significant cranial kinesis: a synovial joint between the braincase and the frontals and a loose articulation between the dentary and the angular/surangular.[5] This cranial kinesis would have dampened forces on the bones of the skull and allowed allosaurids to open their mouths to very large angles.

Allosaurids have 28 precaudal vertebrae (9 cervical, 14 dorsal, 5 sacral) and an estimated 45–50 caudal vertebrae.[5] Gastralia and furculae are rarely preserved as fossils but are presumed to occur in all allosaurids.[6] The pubis is highly elongated and extends ventrally to form a pubic foot which like in other large dinosaurs is thought to have been used to support the weight of the body in a resting crouch position.[4]

Like most other theropods, allosaurids have very short forelimbs relative to their hindlimbs with three digits on the hand and four on the foot. The first digit of the hand forms a semi-opposable thumb and digits 4 and 5 are absent. Digits 2–4 of the foot are robust but digit 1 is reduced and does not touch the ground and digit 5 is absent.[7] All distal phalanges were capped with large claws, those on the hand were especially long and were curved to facilitate raking and grasping of prey items.[4] Phalangeal formulae of the hand and foot are 2-3-4 and 2-3-4-5 respectively.[7]

Classification

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In 2019, Rauhut and Pol described Asfaltovenator vialidadi, a basal allosauroid displaying a mosaic of primitive and derived features seen within Tetanurae. Their phylogenetic analysis found traditional Megalosauroidea to represent a basal grade of carnosaurs, paraphyletic with respect to Allosauroidea. They also noted that the definitive taxonomic placement of Saurophaganax within Allosauroidea is unstable, being recovered as a sister taxon of Metriacanthosauridae or Allosauria, or even as a basalmost carcharodontosaurian.[8]

Carnosauria

In 2024, re-examinations of the specimens attributed to Saurophaganax suggested that it is a chimera of multiple dinosaur genera, since some specimens most likely belong to a diplodocid sauropod, while the other referred allosaurid specimens belong to a novel species of Allosaurus, named as Allosaurus anax.[9]

References

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Allosauridae

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Allosauridae is a family of large, bipedal carnivorous theropod dinosaurs within the superfamily Allosauroidea, characterized by their robust skulls, serrated teeth adapted for slicing flesh, and powerful hind limbs suited for pursuing prey. These apex predators, reaching lengths of 8–12 meters and masses of 2–4 metric tons, dominated ecosystems approximately 157–145 million years ago, during the to stages. The family was first named in 1878 by for the Allosaurus, initially serving as a taxonomic wastebasket for various large theropods before phylogenetic analyses refined its scope to include only taxa more closely related to Allosaurus fragilis than to Megalosaurus bucklandii or modern birds. The primary genus within Allosauridae is , encompassing species such as A. fragilis (the type species from ), A. jimmadseni (a larger form from the ), and A. europaeus (from the of ). Another recognized genus is Saurophaganax maximus, known from fragmentary remains in the of , which may represent a valid distinct , a growth variant of Allosaurus, or chimeric material including a new species of Allosaurus (Allosaurus anax); recent analyses (as of 2025) favor the latter based on reexamination of specimens. Fossil evidence is most abundant from the in the western United States, where Allosauridae accounted for over 70% of large theropod specimens at sites like the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry, with additional records from ('s Lourinhã Formation and Germany's Kimmeridge Clay) indicating a Laurasian distribution. Phylogenetically, Allosauridae occupies a basal position within , as part of the broader clade Allosauroidea, which also includes more derived groups like that persisted into the . Paleobiological insights reveal an active predatory lifestyle, with evidence from subadult specimens showing multiple healed fractures and pathologies—such as rib and limb injuries—suggesting frequent confrontations with prey or conspecifics, possibly indicating gregarious or scavenging opportunities in sauropod-rich environments. Cranial adaptations, including pneumatic jugal bones and strong maxilla-lacrimal articulations, supported a slashing bite with serrated teeth for tearing from large herbivores like Diplodocus and Apatosaurus.

Taxonomy and Classification

History of Discovery

The discovery of Allosauridae began with fragmentary theropod remains from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation in western North America during the late 19th century, amid the intense rivalry known as the between paleontologists and . In 1870, Joseph Leidy described a single large caudal from Middle Park, Colorado, as the type specimen of valens, initially assigning it to the European genus Poekilopleuron before erecting the new genus to reflect its chambered internal structure. This marked the first formal naming of a large theropod from the , though its taxonomic significance remained unclear for decades due to the specimen's incompleteness. In 1877, Marsh named fragilis based on a partial including vertebrae, a , and limb elements from Garden Park, , establishing it as a new of carnivorous dinosaur characterized by its robust build. The following year, in 1878, Marsh erected the family Allosauridae to accommodate as its , distinguishing it from other theropods like Coelurus and distinguishing its members by features such as elongated neural spines. Marsh also proposed Antrodemidae for in the same year, but this family name was short-lived and later synonymized with Allosauridae as additional material revealed close affinities. Similarly, in 1882, Marsh introduced Labrosauridae for his Labrosaurus (based on jaw fragments now considered junior synonyms of ), another early family-level that was eventually consolidated under Allosauridae as synonymies accumulated. Early 20th-century work clarified these relationships through more comprehensive studies. In 1920, Charles W. Gilmore published a detailed osteological monograph on theropods, synonymizing with based on comparative vertebral morphology from the and new specimens, and providing the first full skeletal reconstruction of the . This revision solidified as the preferred name, though debates persisted into the mid-20th century over whether represented a distinct, larger-bodied or merely a senior synonym. Taxonomic discussions intensified in the 1970s amid renewed excavations at sites like the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry. James H. Madsen's 1976 monograph on fragilis analyzed over 60 individuals from the quarry, arguing that the was too fragmentary and poorly provenanced to maintain generic distinction, thereby reviving as the valid name and resolving much of the ongoing debate in favor of synonymy. Recent discoveries have expanded the family's temporal and geographic scope, refining its early evolutionary context. In 2019, Oliver W. M. Rauhut and Diego Pol described vialidadi from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation in , a nearly complete that represents one of the oldest and most informative basal allosauroids, highlighting uncertainties in tetanuran phylogeny and suggesting an earlier diversification of the clade than previously recognized. In 2024, Andrew D. Danison and colleagues re-examined the type material of maximus from , determining it to be a historical chimera incorporating a diplodocid and allosaurid elements; they proposed the new species anax for the theropod portions, further consolidating large Morrison theropods within and underscoring ongoing refinements in allosaurid .

Definition and Diagnosis

Allosauridae is a stem-based clade comprising all theropods more closely related to fragilis than to Carcharodontosaurus saharicus, Giganotosaurus carolinii, or Neovenator salerii. This definition, rooted in , anchors the family within Allosauroidea and excludes more derived carcharodontosaurids and neovenatorids. Originally established by in 1878 to encompass large theropod dinosaurs similar to Allosaurus, the family's boundaries were fluid in early classifications. During the , Allosauridae was frequently viewed as paraphyletic, with taxa such as Acrocanthosaurus and other large allosauroids sometimes included or positioned as transitional forms toward tyrannosauroids or carcharodontosaurids in broader theropod phylogenies. However, cladistic analyses from the early onward, incorporating expanded morphological datasets and computational methods, consistently recovered Allosauridae as monophyletic, refining its scope to a distinct radiation centered on Allosaurus and close relatives. The family is diagnosed by key synapomorphies that distinguish it from other allosauroids, including a deep that enhances cranial flexibility, a reduced supracetabular crest on the ilium contributing to a streamlined pelvic structure, and the presence of hyposphene-hypantrum articulations in the posterior dorsal and anterior caudal vertebrae, which provide enhanced axial stability. These features support a robust, predatory morphology suited to ambushing large prey. Overall, allosaurids represent medium-to-large-bodied allosauroids (typically 6–12 meters in length) with pronounced —evidenced by loose sutural contacts and mobile joints in the skull—enabling powerful, slicing bites, alongside a heavily muscled, bipedal frame adapted for terrestrial predation in ecosystems.

Included Taxa

The family Allosauridae encompasses a small number of valid genera and species, primarily centered on the genus , which represents the core of the group's diversity in the . The type genus includes species such as A. fragilis (the type species) and A. jimmadseni, with additional proposed species like A. anax and A. europaeus subject to ongoing taxonomic debate. Fossils are primarily from the in and the Lusitanian Basin in . These taxa exhibit variations in skull proportions, vertebral morphology, and overall size, reflecting potential ecological or ontogenetic differences within the . Allosaurus fragilis, the type species named by Marsh in 1877, is the most abundant and well-known member, characterized by a robust skull with prominent nasal bosses and lightweight vertebrae featuring deep pleurocoels. It typically reached lengths of 8–9 meters and masses around 2 metric tons, based on specimens from the upper Morrison Formation in Utah and Wyoming. Allosaurus jimmadseni, described by Chure et al. in 2020, is known from the lower Morrison Formation in Utah and differs from A. fragilis in possessing a narrower, more gracile skull with low, blade-like nasal crests extending from subadult-sized horns above the eyes and deeper mandibular rami. Specimens suggest similar body sizes of 8–9 meters, potentially indicating a more specialized feeding strategy. Allosaurus anax, erected by Danison et al. in 2024, incorporates material previously referred to Saurophaganax from the Morrison Formation in Oklahoma; it is distinguished by an unornamented postorbital lacking a dorsolateral ridge, hourglass-shaped dorsal centra with pneumatic foramina, and fibulae bearing three proximomedial fossae. This species attained larger dimensions, with femoral-based mass estimates up to 4.6 metric tons, representing one of the largest known Allosaurus. Allosaurus europaeus, originally described in 2006 and revisited by Burigo and Mateus in 2024, is known from Portuguese fossils in the Lourinhã Formation and supported by nine autapomorphies including lacrimal projections overlapping the nasal dorsally, a step-like maxilla ventroposterior end, and sigmoidal postorbital-jugal contact. It exhibits a pinched nasal crest and larger posterior nasal foramina compared to A. fragilis, with estimated lengths of 10–12 meters. However, a 2025 specimen-level phylogenetic analysis by Malafaia et al. questioned the validity of A. europaeus, referring European material to Allosaurus sp. and recognizing only A. fragilis and A. jimmadseni as valid North American species, highlighting ongoing taxonomic uncertainties. The genus was originally established for larger theropod remains from the , with S. maximus (Chure, 1995) based on a fragmentary neural arch now considered indeterminate. Recent revisions have reclassified most referred specimens as A. anax or even diplodocid sauropods, rendering S. maximus a while retaining the name for some oversized Morrison isolates pending further study. Several historically proposed taxa within Allosauridae are now regarded as dubious or synonymous with . Epanterias amplexus (Cope, 1878), based on large dorsal vertebrae from , lacks diagnostic features beyond size and is considered a junior synonym of Allosaurus, likely representing an oversized A. fragilis individual. Similarly, Antrodemus (Leidy, 1870), established on a single caudal vertebra, has been synonymized with Allosaurus since Gilmore's 1920 reassessment, as the material shows no unique traits beyond those of A. fragilis. These reclassifications highlight ongoing taxonomic debates, with phylogenetic analyses placing all valid Allosaurus species as a monophyletic within Allosauridae.

Phylogenetic Position

Allosauridae represents a derived within the larger superfamily Allosauroidea, consistently recovered as the to a comprising and Neovenatoridae in comprehensive cladistic analyses of tetanuran theropods. This positioning underscores Allosauridae's role as one of the primary lineages of large-bodied that dominated terrestrial ecosystems from the onward. Allosauroidea itself is nested within , more specifically as part of , distinguishing it from the coelurosaurian branch of theropods through a combination of cranial and postcranial specializations adapted for predatory lifestyles. Key synapomorphies diagnosing Allosauroidea include an enlarged promaxillary formed by the expansion of the promaxillary in the , which enhances pneumaticity in the , and a reduction in the fibula's distal articulation with the astragalus, reflecting modifications to proportions for efficient locomotion in large-bodied forms. Within Allosauridae, phylogenetic analyses highlight specific traits such as a distinctive configuration of the preorbital (antorbital) fossa, characterized by nasal participation and invaginated recesses in the lacrimal, along with strongly curved pedal unguals that contribute to the clade's grasping capabilities during predation. These features are evident in major studies, including Brusatte and Sereno (2008), which resolved Sinraptor as a basal allosauroid outside Allosauridae, emphasizing the clade's derived status relative to earlier diverging members of the superfamily. Further insights into allosaurid relationships come from the 2019 analysis by Rauhut and Pol, which incorporated the basal allosauroid Asfaltovenator vialidadi and revealed a mosaic of evolutionary traits, including homoplasies in cranial fenestration and limb proportions that blur traditional boundaries between Allosauroidea and , thereby highlighting ongoing uncertainties in early tetanuran divergence. Positions within Allosauridae remain unstable for certain taxa; for instance, maximus has shown variable placement across matrices, sometimes as a junior synonym of or a distinct allosaurid, due to chimeric assemblages in referred specimens. Recent phylogenetic revisions by Burigo and Mateus (2024) nested the European europaeus within the clade, forming a sister taxon to A. jimmadseni based on shared synapomorphies like lacrimal strut division and nasal crest morphology, reinforcing the genus's transatlantic distribution during the ; however, a 2025 specimen-level analysis by Malafaia et al. did not recognize A. europaeus as valid, instead assigning European specimens to sp. and limiting valid North American species to A. fragilis and A. jimmadseni.

Anatomy and Description

General Morphology

Allosauridae comprised large bipedal theropod dinosaurs with a carnivorous build adapted for predation, featuring an S-shaped neck supporting a massive , a robust torso housing strong axial musculature, a that provided counterbalance during locomotion, and notably reduced forelimbs with three-fingered hands bearing curved claws. This body plan emphasized powerful hindlimbs for bipedal gait, enabling bursts of speed and stability while pursuing prey, as reconstructed from well-preserved specimens like those from the . Body size within Allosauridae varied significantly, with lengths ranging from approximately 5 to 12 meters and masses between 1.5 and 4 metric tons. The type genus Allosaurus fragilis exemplifies the typical proportions, attaining 8–9 meters in length and around 2 metric tons in mass for mature adults, based on volumetric models derived from skeletal measurements such as femur lengths of 850–874 mm. Growth patterns indicate rapid mass accrual, with annual increases up to 148 kg during peak ontogeny around age 15, followed by stabilization into adulthood. Skin impressions preserved in Allosauridae fossils reveal a non-feathered dominated by scaly textures, including pebbly basement scales approximately 2 cm in diameter on the dorsal and tail regions, as well as polarized scutate scales on ventral surfaces like the neck; sparse filaments may have been present in juvenile stages, similar to some theropod relatives. These structures suggest a reptilian-like covering, lacking the extensive protofeathers seen in coelurosaurian relatives. Hypotheses of in Allosauridae stem from morphometric analyses of specimens, where certain skeletal elements exhibit bimodal clustering along allometric trajectories—such as in robusticity—potentially reflecting sex-based size or shape differences, though these remain unconfirmed without direct histological or genetic evidence. Compared to outgroups, allosaurids displayed a more gracile overall morphology than the robust-skulled ceratosaurs, while being less specialized than spinosaurids, which evolved elongated snouts and piscivorous adaptations.

Skull and Dentition

The skulls of allosaurid theropods, such as , were elongated and lightweight, typically measuring up to 1 meter in length in large adults, with a robust construction adapted for predatory functions. These crania featured large antorbital fenestrae, which occupied a significant portion of the and contributed to reducing overall weight while maintaining structural integrity. Prominent crests formed by the nasal and lacrimal bones were characteristic, with the nasals bearing bilateral, blade-like projections along their lateral margins and the lacrimal forming a pronounced horn-like crest above the ; these features were more exaggerated in Allosaurus jimmadseni compared to A. fragilis. was facilitated by mobile joints, including streptostyly at the quadrate and potential metakinetic flexion between the and braincase, allowing limited lateral and dorsoventral movement during biting. Dentition in Allosauridae consisted of numerous conical to recurved teeth arranged in a thecodont configuration, with four premaxillary teeth, 14–17 maxillary teeth per side, and 14–17 dentary teeth. The teeth were ziphodont, meaning laterally compressed, strongly recurved posteriorly, and bearing fine serrations (denticulations) along the mesial and distal carinae, with crown heights reaching up to 7-12 cm in adults and serration densities varying to enhance slicing efficiency. Premaxillary teeth were more upright and conical, suited for initial prey grasping, while posterior teeth became increasingly recurved for tearing flesh. Tooth replacement occurred at a rapid rate of approximately 100 days per position, enabling frequent renewal to maintain functional despite from feeding on large prey. Sensory adaptations in allosaurid skulls included large orbits, indicating enhanced for detecting movement in scenarios. The braincase housed enlarged olfactory bulbs, suggesting a well-developed for tracking prey over distances, though the olfactory processing regions were relatively modest compared to the visual centers. Interspecific variations within Allosauridae encompassed snout proportions, with larger forms like exhibiting deeper, more robust snouts relative to the shallower profiles in fragilis, potentially reflecting adaptations to handling bigger prey.

Postcranial Skeleton

The postcranial skeleton of Allosauridae, excluding the skull, encompasses the and appendicular elements adapted for bipedal locomotion in large theropod dinosaurs. The vertebral column typically includes 9 , 14 dorsal vertebrae, 5 sacral vertebrae, and approximately 50 caudal vertebrae, though the exact count of caudals varies among individuals and is incompletely preserved in most specimens. The neural arches of the dorsal vertebrae possess hyposphene-hypantrum articulations, accessory joints that interlock adjacent vertebrae to increase rigidity along the presacral column, facilitating efficient force transmission during movement. The pectoral girdle is relatively small compared to the overall body size, with a slender scapula measuring about 50-60 cm in length in adult specimens, supporting a modest coracoid and a three-fingered manus. The manus features robust metacarpals and phalanges, terminating in large, curved ungual claws up to 20 cm long on digits I-III, which exhibit recurved tips and deep grooves for vascularization and keratin sheaths. In the pelvic girdle, the ilium is robust and elongated, with a prominent supracetabular crest above the acetabulum that anchors powerful caudofemoralis musculature for hindlimb retraction. The pubis is asymmetrical, with a straight shaft and expanded distal boot forming part of the puboischiadic plate, contributing to the stability of the hip joint in a dinosaur reaching up to 12 meters in total length. The hindlimbs are the primary locomotor apparatus, dominated by a reaching lengths of up to 1.2 in large individuals, paired with a slightly shorter and . The pes is tetradactyl, with four toes: digit I reduced and elevated off the ground, digits II-IV bearing weight, and large, falcate ungual phalanges on digits II-IV that enhance traction and potentially aided in prey restraint. Fossils of Allosauridae frequently exhibit pathologies in the postcranial , including healed fractures in long bones such as the and , as well as puncture and scoring marks on vertebrae and elements consistent with bite wounds, indicative of frequent agonistic interactions among individuals.

Locomotion and

Allosauridae exhibited a bipedal posture typical of large theropod dinosaurs, with elongated hindlimbs supporting the body weight and a long, heavy tail serving as a counterbalance to maintain stability during movement. The skeletal proportions, including robust femora and tibiae relative to the shorter forelimbs, indicate an bipedal in adults, though some from subadult specimens suggests possible occasional use of forelimbs for support in juveniles under stress. This posture allowed for efficient forward , with the tail rigidly held horizontally to prevent sagging and aid in rapid directional changes. Locomotion in Allosauridae was likely adapted for bursts of speed rather than sustained running, with estimates derived from limb ratios and trackways in the suggesting maximum velocities of 20-30 km/h for species like fragilis. These trackways, including theropod ichnofossils from sites like Dinosaur Ridge in , show stride lengths consistent with walking to trotting gaits at moderate speeds, implying energy-efficient travel across environments rather than high-endurance pursuits. Pathological evidence from healed fractures in bones further supports that individuals could recover from locomotor injuries and resume activity, indicating resilience in movement despite occasional impairments. Behavioral inferences from trace fossils and bonebeds point to a mix of solitary and possibly gregarious habits in Allosauridae. Theropod trackways in the occasionally preserve parallel or closely spaced prints, suggesting small-group movement or hunting, though most appear solitary, consistent with opportunistic foraging. The Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry in , dominated by Allosaurus remains (over 75% carnivores), shows a high predator-to-prey ratio that may reflect communal scavenging of trapped carcasses or pack-like aggregation at resource-rich sites, rather than mass mortality from a single event. Sensory capabilities in Allosauridae supported ambush-oriented behaviors, with anatomical features indicating reliance on vision and olfaction for detecting prey or carrion. The skull structure limited binocular vision to approximately 20° forward overlap, sufficient for depth perception in close-range strikes but less specialized than in later theropods. Olfactory bulbs in Allosaurus were moderately enlarged relative to brain size, suggesting effective scent detection for locating hidden or distant resources, akin to modern crocodylians. Low cranial crests or ridges may have functioned in visual display during intraspecific signaling, enhancing recognition in low-light or forested habitats. Evidence of intraspecific aggression is preserved in healed bite wounds on Allosaurus skeletons, including punctures and scores matching theropod dentition, likely from conspecific encounters. Such pathologies, observed in up to 28% of bones from sites like the Mygatt-Moore Quarry, include head and neck injuries that healed with callus formation, pointing to territorial disputes or dominance rituals rather than fatal attacks. Survival of these injuries, as seen in specimens with multiple lesions, implies social tolerance or that allowed recovery without isolation.

Feeding Ecology

Allosaurids functioned as apex predators within ecosystems, exhibiting primary carnivory through predation on large herbivorous dinosaurs, including sauropods such as and ornithischians like . Fossil evidence from the reveals numerous bite marks on sauropod bones attributable to theropod dinosaurs, with Allosauridae likely responsible given their abundance as the dominant large-bodied predators in these assemblages; these traces suggest attacks on both adults and juveniles, often inflicting non-lethal slashing wounds to debilitate prey over time. Bite mechanics in Allosauridae were adapted for efficient flesh removal rather than bone crushing, with estimated bite forces for Allosaurus ranging from 4.4 to 9.4 kN along the tooth row—relatively modest for a predator of its size (up to ~2.5 tonnes)—facilitated by a lightweight skull and powerful jaw adductors. The ziphodont , featuring recurved teeth with fine serrations, enabled deep slashing punctures, while neck musculature powered hatchet-like downward strikes to tear off strips of flesh from living or freshly killed prey. In the , Allosauridae occupied the top trophic position, preying on or scavenging megaherbivores while potentially engaging in by displacing smaller carnivores such as from carcasses, as inferred from modification patterns and quarry assemblages showing competitive interactions over resources. Stable calcium isotope (δ⁴⁴/⁴⁰Ca) analyses of Allosaurus indicate a diet dominated by soft tissues with minimal consumption (δ⁴⁴/⁴⁰Ca values overlapping those of contemporary herbivores but elevated relative to bone-eaters), supporting a mixed strategy of active and opportunistic scavenging. Rare theropod coprolites from the , measuring up to 44 cm in length and containing 30–50% fragmented in a mineralized matrix, further attest to occasional ingestion of skeletal remains during scavenging bouts. Niche partitioning among Allosauridae and co-occurring theropods minimized competition, with larger forms like Saurophaganax maximus (or Allosaurus anax) specializing in massive adult sauropods through sustained wounding tactics, whereas smaller allosaurids targeted juvenile or subadult prey to exploit a broader range of sizes without direct overlap. Skull and tooth morphology differences—such as deeper jaws in for larger gapes versus the more versatile dentition—reinforced this partitioning, allowing multiple large predators to coexist in resource-limited environments.

Growth and Reproduction

Allosaurids displayed rapid somatic growth during their juvenile phase, with individuals estimated to increase in body mass by up to 148 kg per year based on limb bone . Bone thin sections reveal cyclical growth marks and lines of arrested growth (LAGs), indicating annual pauses in deposition that allowed age . Skeletal maturity occurred between 13 and 22 years of age, coinciding with the formation of an external fundamental system (EFS) in the outer cortex, signaling determinate growth cessation. Ontogenetic shifts in Allosauridae were pronounced, particularly in , where juveniles exhibited more gracile builds with proportionally taller skulls, larger orbits, and relatively longer limbs compared to body size. As individuals aged, the skeleton became increasingly robust, with adults developing thickened cranial elements, pronounced crests on the lacrimal bones, and overall sturdier postcranial proportions adapted for larger body masses. Reproduction in Allosauridae was likely oviparous, consistent with the reproductive mode of all known non-avian theropods. Clutch sizes for large theropods like are estimated at 15-20 eggs, derived from allometric scaling of body mass against known theropod nest data, suggesting a single annual clutch to match metabolic constraints. was attained around 10 years of age, at body lengths of approximately 6-8 meters, as inferred from growth curve modeling and the presence of medullary in subadult specimens indicating reproductive activity. Estimated longevity for Allosauridae spanned 20-30 years, with maximum ages up to 28 years determined from LAG counts in mature bones before EFS formation. may have been present in features such as lacrimal crest size, potentially signaling maturity or mate attraction, though this remains debated due to overlapping morphological variation possibly attributable to or rather than sex. No embryonic or fossils of Allosauridae have been directly identified, limiting direct insights into early developmental stages.

Fossil Record

Temporal and Geographic Distribution

Allosauridae encompasses a group of large theropod dinosaurs whose fossils are primarily known from the epoch, specifically the and stages, dating from approximately 155 to 145 million years ago. This temporal range aligns closely with the deposition of major fossil-bearing formations during a period of warm, humid climates that supported diverse terrestrial ecosystems. While the family is firmly established in the , earlier records from the stage (around 168-166 Ma) remain debated, potentially representing basal allosauroids rather than definitive Allosauridae members. Geographically, the primary distribution of Allosauridae centers on North America, where the vast majority of specimens have been recovered from the Morrison Formation in states such as Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado. This formation, spanning a broad expanse of the western United States, yielded the most iconic genera like Allosaurus and Saurophaganax, reflecting their dominance as apex predators in floodplain and riverine environments. In Europe, Allosauridae is represented by Allosaurus europaeus from the Lourinhã Formation in Portugal's Lusitanian Basin, indicating possible faunal connections across the proto-Atlantic during the Late Jurassic. No confirmed fossils have been identified in Asia or Africa, limiting the family's known range to Laurasian and potentially northern Gondwanan margins. Potential ties to South America exist through Asfaltovenator vialidadi from Argentina's Cañadón Asfalto Formation, though this taxon is considered a basal allosauroid from the earlier Middle Jurassic (late Toarcian to Bajocian, ~174-170 Ma) and not a core Allosauridae member. Biostratigraphically, Allosauridae fossils are most abundant in the upper levels of the , particularly the Brushy Basin Member, which correlates to the early and coincides with peak sauropod diversity in the region. This stratigraphic interval highlights the family's role in communities, where they coexisted with giant herbivores like and . By the end of the , Allosauridae declined amid broader faunal turnover, potentially due to environmental shifts and competition from emerging early coelurosaurs, marking their extinction around the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary without surviving into the .

Notable Specimens and Localities

One of the most significant fossil localities for Allosauridae is Dinosaur National Monument in northeastern Utah, where multiple partial to nearly complete skeletons of Allosaurus fragilis have been excavated from the Morrison Formation, contributing substantially to reconstructions of allosaurid morphology and ontogeny. The site's quarry face preserves over 1,500 bones in situ, including several articulated Allosaurus specimens with well-preserved skulls, one of which ranks among the finest Late Jurassic theropod crania known. Additionally, the monument yielded the holotype of Allosaurus jimmadseni in the early 1990s, a species distinguished by features in the skull and pubis, with further specimens confirming its presence alongside A. fragilis. These discoveries, spanning subadult to adult individuals, have informed studies on allosaurid growth and variation. The Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry, also in Utah's , stands out for its extraordinary concentration of over 46 individuals—predominantly adults and subadults—representing the densest known theropod bonebed and comprising about 70% of the site's fossils. Taphonomic analyses indicate this assemblage likely formed as a drought-induced trap, where seasonal drew animals to a diminishing pond, leading to entrapment and death by trampling, predation, or exhaustion, rather than a purely predatory arena. The disarticulated and intermixed bones, often showing bite marks and pathologies consistent with scavenging, were exported in the mid-20th century to institutions like the and of , facilitating global research on allosaurid . Among notable specimens, AMNH 680 from the of represents one of the largest known fragilis individuals, estimated at 9.7 meters in length, and was the first free-standing theropod mount displayed publicly in at the , posed over sauropod remains to depict scavenging behavior. Another key find is specimen OMNH 58340, a large subadult A. fragilis from Wyoming's Howe-Stephens Quarry, exhibiting multiple pathologies including healed fractures in the ribs, infection in the caudal vertebrae, and trauma to the left , evidence of a violent lifestyle with high injury rates among allosaurids. In 2024, material from the Museum of (OMNH), originally assigned to Saurophaganax maximus, was reassigned to a new species, anax, based on diagnostic neural arch features distinguishing it from A. fragilis, resolving long-standing taxonomic confusion in the Kenton Quarry assemblage. European allosaurid remains are rarer but pivotal; first described in 2006 by Mateus et al. from the Member of Portugal's Lourinhã Formation ( ML 415, a partial with posterior skull elements, sclerotic ring, vertebrae, and limb bones), with a redescription and additional material in 2024 supporting transatlantic dispersal of Allosauridae during the . Recent excavations in Wyoming during the 2020s, particularly at the Jurassic Mile site near Lovell, have uncovered articulated juvenile Allosaurus elements including paired hindlimbs and a preserved snout, providing a series of growth-stage specimens that enhance understanding of allosaurid development from subadult to adult sizes. These finds, part of ongoing efforts by institutions like the Children's Museum of Indianapolis and Wyoming Dinosaur Center, continue to yield bonebeds with taphonomic signatures of fluvial deposition and minimal transport, aiding ontogenetic studies. In 2025, further analysis revealed skin impressions on the specimen and CT scans confirmed internal details of the preserved elements, enhancing understanding of allosaurid soft tissue preservation.

References

  1. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/17/1/29
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