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4th-century relief of the investiture of the Sasanian king Ardashir II (centre). Mithra (left) stands on a lotus flower holding a barsom.[1]
A 4th-century BCE depiction of a priest bearing a barsom. From the Oxus Treasure. The present-day barsom is much shorter, and made of wire.
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A barsom /ˈbɑːrsəm/ is a ritual implement used by Zoroastrian priests to solemnize certain sacred ceremonies.

The word barsom derives from the Avestan language baresman (trisyllabic, bar'əs'man), which is in turn a substantive of barez "to grow high."[2] The later form – barsom – first appears in the 9th–12th-century texts of Zoroastrian tradition, and remains in use to the present day.

The baresman is not related to the baresnum, which is a purification ceremony. The baresman should also not be confused with the "mace", the varza (Avestan, MP gurz). The varza is a metal rod, about one centimeter in thickness, often crowned with a bull's head.

It has been suggested that the baresman may have a Zagrosian origin.[3][a]

Physical characteristics

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Material

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In present-day use, the barsom is a bundle of short metal wires or rods, each about 20 cm in length[4] and made of brass or silver.

The use of metal wires or rods is a relatively recent development: Until at least the 16th century, the barsom was made of twigs or stems, and there was an elaborate ritual surrounding their collection. There is no indication in scripture or older tradition as to which plant was to be used, and Yasna 25.3 eulogizes the plant without being specific.

One indication of which plant was used comes from the 16th century, where the authors of the Rivayat epistles reprimand their Indian co-religionists for not using twigs of the tamarisk (R. 329[5]). The twigs of the pomegranate tree also figure in other late sources. Strabo (XV.3.14) speaks of "a bundle of slender myrtle rods."

Dimensions

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Both scripture and tradition are precise with respect to the dimensions of the twigs required. Yasna 57.5 mandates that each twig shall not exceed "the height of the knee," and Vendidad 19.19 (supported by the Nirangistan) requires each rod to be at most the length of an aesha and the thickness of the width of a yava. Darmesteter translates aesha as "ploughshare" and yava as barley-corn. A twig/rod was thus at most about 7 mm thick. The Nirangstan further adds that the thickness may not be less than that of a human hair.

The barsom that appears in Achaemenid and Sassanid art "was of impressive size, about 45 cm (1+1⁄2 ft) long, made up apparently of stiff straight rods."[4]

Number

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The number of twigs/rods depends on the ritual being performed, and the Shayast-na Shayast (14.2) unambiguously states that this number must be adhered to. A recitation of the Yasna liturgy is accompanied by a bundle of 21 twigs, with two others being placed by the side of another ritual implement. The Vendidad requires 33 twigs in the bundle with two other placed as for the Yasna. A recitation of the Visperad requires 35 twigs, with none left over. The number similarly varies for other rituals, all of these however only requiring between 3 and 15 twigs.

Binding

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In present-day use, the rods almost always remain unbound. The one exception comes near the end of the baj ceremony for the dead, when they are bound with a strip of date palm leaf.

Use in ritual

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In ritual, the barsom bundle is either held in the left hand, or placed across a pair of metallic stands about 20 cm in height, with one stand at each end of the bundle. These stands have a crescent-shaped brace at the top, so (also) preventing the rods from rolling off. The crescent shape gives them their name, mah-rui, literally "moon-faced." Dadestan-i Denig 48.17[6] states the stands must be of metal.

A barsom has no immediate practical purpose. At Zoroastrian ritual it represents plant creation, accompanying the other symbolic tokens that represent other facets of creation, and each of which then also represent the presence of an Amesha Spenta at the ritual. In the case of the barsom, it is Ameretat "immortality." The crescent-shaped brace of the barsom stand is likewise identified with vegetation: mah, the moon, is in Zoroastrian scripture and tradition the cosmogonical protector of plants and encourages their growth. "The object of holding the barsom and repeating prayers is to praise the Creator for the support accorded by nature and for the gift of the produce of the earth, which supplies the means of existence to the human and the animal world. The object of selecting the barsom from the twigs of a tree is to take it as a representative of the whole vegetable kingdom, for which benedictions and thanks to the Creator are offered, and there is further proof to show that the performance of the barsom ritual is intended to express gratitude to the Creator for His boundless gifts."[7]

The barsom is also held by a priest during the abbreviated Yasna recitation before meals. An episode of the Shahnameh recalls that when Yazdegerd III (the last Sassanid emperor, but like his forefathers, also a priest) was in hiding, his request for a barsom gave him away to the enemy.[8]

In Zoroastrian tradition, the second chapter of the Yasna liturgy is named the Barsom Yasht.[9] As a part of the liturgy, it is not however part of the Yasht collection. In the Avesta categorization of Kellens,[10] Yasna 2 – the Barsom Yasht – complements the other 7 of the first 8 Yasna chapters, the purpose of the 8-chapter set being an invitation of the divinities to the ceremony. After Yasna 1's initial invitation of Ahura Mazda, the Amesha Spentas and the remaining yazatas, the baresman and libation are presented to them in Yasna 2.

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Barsom

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from Grokipedia
The barsom (also spelled baresman or barsum), a sacred bundle of twigs or slender rods, serves as a central ritual implement in Zoroastrian liturgy, symbolizing homage to the vegetable creation of Ahura Mazda and the Amesha Spenta Ameretat, who represents eternal life, health, and immortality. Traditionally fashioned from twigs of sacred plants such as tamarisk, pomegranate, myrtle, or date palm, the barsom is tied with strips of date-palm leaf (known as aiwiyaonghana) and held by priests during key ceremonies to channel divine power and connect the material and spiritual realms. In modern Zoroastrian practice, particularly among Parsi communities in India, it has evolved to consist of metal rods—typically brass or silver, about nine inches long and one-eighth inch in diameter—due to the scarcity of traditional plant materials following the community's migration from Iran. Originating in prehistoric Indo-Iranian traditions and attested in Avestan texts from the time of Zoroaster, the barsom appears in ancient artifacts such as the Oxus Treasures (5th–4th century BCE) and Sassanian rock reliefs at Taq-e Bostan (3rd–7th century CE), where it is depicted as a symbol held by priests and kings during rituals and coronations. Its usage varies by ceremony: for instance, the Yasna liturgy employs 23 twigs placed on a crescent-shaped stand (mah-rui), while the Vendidad requires 35, reflecting its role in invoking purity, healing, and cosmic order (asha). Over time, the barsom transitioned from a single branch in Iron Age contexts (e.g., Lorestan bronzes, circa 1000–500 BCE) to a bundled form by the Achaemenid period, evolving into a multifaceted emblem of religious devotion, royal legitimacy, and the harmony between humanity, nature, and the divine. This implement remains indispensable in high liturgical rites today, underscoring Zoroastrianism's emphasis on environmental reverence and spiritual efficacy.

Origins and Etymology

Historical Development

The Barsom traces its prehistoric origins to proto-Indo-Iranian rituals of the second millennium BCE, where bundles of sacred plants served in purification ceremonies and to mediate connections between humans and natural divinities, paralleling the Vedic barhis in early Indo-Aryan practices. These shared traditions highlight a common cultural substrate among ancient Indo-Iranian peoples, emphasizing vegetal elements as conduits for spiritual efficacy. The term barəsman, denoting "the exalted," underscores this ritual prominence in the emerging Zoroastrian framework. Earliest archaeological evidence includes depictions of single branches in Iron Age Lorestan bronzes (c. 1000–500 BCE), evolving to bundled forms in Achaemenid-era Oxus Treasures (5th–4th century BCE) and Sassanian rock reliefs at Taq-e Bostan (3rd–7th century CE). The earliest formalized references to the Barsom emerge in the Avestan corpus, particularly the Yasna (core sections c. 1000–600 BCE) and Vendidad (younger Avestan, c. 5th century BCE–Sassanian era), during the religion's formative phase. In the Yasna's second chapter, it is presented as an indispensable element for summoning divine entities in liturgical contexts, while Vendidad passages (e.g., 14.8, 19.18–19) portray it as integral to invoking Ahura Mazda's presence and honoring creation. These depictions mark the Barsom's transition from informal prehistoric usage to a structured component of Zoroastrian worship, embedding it within the ethical and cosmic dualism of the faith. In Pahlavi literature of the Sasanian era (3rd–9th centuries CE), the Barsom underwent conceptual refinement, appearing in texts like the as an emblem of vegetal creation under the , representing immortality and the ordered growth of the world. Later Pahlavi works, including rivayats, further codified its role, preserving and expanding precedents amid evolving theological interpretations.

Linguistic Roots

The term "barsom" originates from the Avestan word barəsman (also rendered as baresma or baresman), a substantive derived from the root barəz- meaning "to grow high" or "to elevate," which evokes the image of topmost twigs raised toward the divine. This etymological root underscores the object's connection to growth and spiritual upliftment in ancient Zoroastrian , as referenced in texts such as the . A key cognate appears in Vedic Sanskrit as barhis, denoting the sacred grass or bundle of twigs used in Indo-Iranian sacrificial s, reflecting a common linguistic and ceremonial heritage between early Iranian and Indian traditions. The phonetic and semantic parallels between barəsman and barhis—both linked to the Proto-Indo-Iranian *bʰerH- "to grow" or "to carry high"—illustrate how the term evolved from shared vocabulary around the second millennium BCE. In (Pahlavi), the form shifts to barsom, retaining the core meaning of a bundled implement while integrating into the Zoroastrian of the Sassanian period (224–651 CE), where it increasingly denotes not just the physical twigs but their consecrated role in ceremonies. This evolution marks a transition from a primarily descriptive term for a literal bundle to a specialized emblem in priestly texts like the Pahlavi Rivayat. Contemporary adaptations preserve phonetic continuity: in modern Persian, it appears as barsam or barsom within Zoroastrian contexts, while in Gujarati spoken by Parsi communities, the term barsom endures in , adapting slightly to local without altering its Indo-Iranian essence.

Physical Characteristics

Materials Used

The traditional materials for constructing the Barsom are twigs sourced from specific evergreen and fruit-bearing trees, selected for their compatibility with Zoroastrian liturgical requirements. The tamarisk tree serves as the primary and original material, as documented in the Persian Rivayats. Later Zoroastrian texts, such as those referenced by J.J. Modi, also endorse twigs from the tree or the chini tree. The texts, including 25.3, do not prescribe a single species but permit twigs from any flourishing tree suitable for use. Additional traditional materials include myrtle, laurel, , , , and chenar (plane tree). The selection process adheres to guidelines in the to maintain purity, requiring that are non-parasitic and grown in undefiled soil. 19.18 specifies that twigs must be harvested from a vigorous, unblemished , ensuring no signs of decay or infestation. Gathering occurs during designated auspicious periods, involving the recitation of the Ashem Vohu prayer while cutting the twigs with a consecrated knife. Since the , Parsi communities in have shifted to metal substitutes—primarily rods, with silver used occasionally—due to the of tamarisk and other traditional amid urban migration and environmental changes.

Dimensions and Number

The barsom, consisting of twigs or rods, adheres to specific dimensions prescribed in Avestan texts to ensure ritual purity and efficacy. According to Vendidad 19.19, each twig must be "long as an aesha" — interpreted as the length of a ploughshare, roughly equivalent to 12-18 inches (30-45 cm) — and "thick as a yava," the breadth of a grain, approximately 0.2-0.3 inches (0.5-0.8 cm) in diameter. These measurements promote uniformity and symbolize the integration of natural elements into the sacred rite, with the maximum length not exceeding knee height or about 2 feet in some interpretations. The number of barsom twigs varies according to the liturgical context, reflecting the ritual's complexity and symbolic depth. For the standard ceremony, 23 twigs are required: 21 tied into the main bundle, one placed on the foot of the mah-rui (crescent-shaped holder), and one on the jivam saucer. In higher liturgies such as the or Visperad — often termed the inner or high Yasna — the number increases to 35 twigs, with 33 in the bundle and two used separately, aligning with the extended structure of these rites. Simpler rituals, like the Baj or Afrinagan, employ fewer twigs, typically 3 to 5, as stipulated in texts such as Yasna 57.5 and the Nirangistan, emphasizing minimalism for outer or preliminary observances. During the Pahlavi era, as detailed in texts like the Shayest Na-Shayest, these quantities were standardized to avoid ritual invalidation, with the numbers tied to numerological symbolism; for instance, the 35 twigs in extended rituals correspond to divisions in the liturgical framework, ensuring harmony with cosmic order. In contemporary Zoroastrian practice, particularly among Parsi communities, metal rods (often brass or silver) have largely replaced organic twigs like tamarisk, fixed at lengths of about 9 inches (23 cm) for practicality and portability during ceremonies. This adaptation maintains the prescribed uniformity while accommodating modern ritual needs.

Binding and Preparation

The preparation of the Barsom involves careful selection, cleaning, and assembly of the individual twigs or metal wires to ensure ritual purity and structural integrity. Traditionally, twigs from sacred trees such as tamarisk, , or are gathered, washed with pure , and cut to standard lengths of approximately 23 cm using a ritual knife known as the kaplo while reciting prayers like the Ashem Vohu. The twigs must be straight and free of knots or breaks, as specified in priestly guidelines outlined in the 9th-century Dinkard (Book 8, Chapter 29), which emphasizes flawless quality for the bundle's efficacy in ceremonies. In modern practice, metal wires of or silver, typically 23 cm long and 3 mm in diameter, undergo similar purification but are often pre-assembled by manufacturers into bundles for convenience. Once cleaned and inspected, the twigs or wires are aligned parallel to one another on a mahruy, a crescent-shaped receptacle stand made of , silver, or occasionally stone, which supports the bundle upright during assembly and use. The aligned elements are then bound loosely with a strip of date-palm leaf called aiwiyaonghana to form a compact yet flexible bundle, allowing the ends to fan slightly for manipulation. This binding uses windings or knots recited over with specific prayers, such as the Baj and Ahunvar, ensuring the structure remains stable without restricting airflow or movement. In contemporary metal versions, the wires may be secured with additional thin wires or the traditional aiwiyaonghana. Quality checks during preparation focus on uniformity and purity, with the Dinkard underscoring that any imperfection, such as irregularities in the twigs, could compromise the ritual's sanctity; thus, priests verify alignment and binding tension to prevent loosening during extended ceremonies. The mahruy plays a key role in this process, elevating the bundle to eye level for precise tying and later positioning it across two stands during the rite. These steps, rooted in ancient Pahlavi texts like the , maintain the Barsom's role as a precise ritual tool across Zoroastrian traditions.

Ritual Use

Consecration Process

The consecration of the Barsom begins with initial purification of the twigs or metallic rods, which are washed using consecrated water drawn from a pure source with a ritually clean utensil, ensuring removal of any impurities before assembly. In modern practice with metal rods, purification may involve the Khub ceremony. This step is followed by the tying of the bundle, which is spiritually activated during the preparatory phase. The process invokes rituals involving recitations from the , such as the Barsom Yasht (Yasna 2) and the Baj with Khshnuman, praising the ritual order and sanctifying the implement. During the invocation, the priest chants prayers directed to the Amesha Spentas, such as the Khshnuman of Khshathra Vairya, while tying the bundle with a sacred thread or wire to secure it, a step that spiritually activates the Barsom as a conduit for divine energy. Specific hand gestures are employed, with the bundle held in the left hand and the right hand used for precise touching or knotting to maintain integrity and avoid pollution. This sanctification builds upon the prior physical binding of the twigs, transforming the mechanical assembly into a holy object. The rite is conducted in the inner sanctum of a , known as the Yasna gah, where the priest performs the actions in proximity to the consecrated fire to enhance spiritual potency. It encompasses multiple recitations including Ashem Vohu and Fravarane to align the Barsom with cosmic order. Consecration occurs anew for each major liturgical ceremony, such as the , or as required for lesser observances like daily prayers.

Application in Yasna

In the Zoroastrian , the Barsom serves as an essential implement, held by the in the left hand to channel sacred power between the material and spiritual realms during recitations. The places the bundle on the crescent-shaped mahruy (or barsom-dan) stand beside the fire altar, where it remains positioned throughout much of the ceremony, immediately following its consecration with and prayers. The Barsom plays a key role in specific stages of the , particularly the libation recited in Yasna 10, where haoma twigs are pounded with pomegranate branches, milk, and in the havanim mortar to prepare the sacred , symbolizing the fertilization of , while the Barsom represents the vegetable creation. It is also employed in Gahambar offerings, as invoked in Yasna 1, to direct communal prayers and oblations toward and the divine entities. During these phases, (zaothra) is poured over the Barsom, enhancing its function as a conduit for ritual efficacy. Gestures involving the Barsom are prescribed in priestly texts such as the , where it is lifted toward the face during invocations to align the priest's actions with the sacred words. The priest may also wave the bundle above the fire altar to invoke , as observed in traditional performances. These movements accompany the rhythmic recitation of the verses, maintaining the flow of the liturgy as detailed in sources like the Nirangistan. Variations in the Barsom's configuration occur based on ritual type; for the standard daily , a full bundle of 21 twigs (or metal wires) is used, supplemented by two loose ones placed on saucers at the mahruy's base and for the jivam mixture. In contrast, reduced bundles are employed for specialized rites, such as 7 twigs in Navar initiations or adapted setups in Yasnas to suit the somber context while preserving core liturgical elements.

Symbolism and Cultural Role

Spiritual Meanings

In Zoroastrian doctrine, the Barsom primarily symbolizes the world's , serving as a emblem to express to for the boundless gifts of creation. The (19.17-18) prescribes that Zarathustra approach a high-growing and offer homage with the words, "Hail to thee! O good, holy tree, made by Mazda," thereby invoking praise for plant life as a divine endowment. This act underscores the Barsom's role in honoring the vegetable kingdom, which sustains existence and reflects the Creator's benevolence. The bundle's configuration, particularly the 35 twigs used in the dedicated to the Yazatas, facilitates their invocation during worship. Metaphysically, the Barsom functions as a conduit bridging the material (getig) and spiritual (menog) realms, through which archetypal divine principles manifest and receive human offerings, enhancing the ritual's efficacy. Its inherent purity counters the disruptive forces of the daevas—embodiments of chaos and evil—by upholding ritual sanctity and repelling impurity. Doctrinally, the Barsom embodies harmony with nature and the ethical order of asha, aligning human devotion with cosmic righteousness. It is linked to Spenta Armaiti, the Amesha Spenta representing holy devotion and the earth's nurturing aspect, as invoked in Avestan hymns to foster spiritual alignment and ethical living. Through these ties, the Barsom reinforces Zoroastrian theology's emphasis on purity, gratitude, and the interconnectedness of creation.

Modern Practices

In contemporary Zoroastrian communities, the Barsom has largely transitioned to metal constructions, consisting of bundles of or silver rods approximately 9 inches long, serving as a practical substitute for traditional twigs. This became prevalent among in and Iranis in Western countries during the , driven by the unavailability of native vegetation like tamarisk following historical migrations. The metal Barsom remains indispensable in core liturgical rites, such as the (23 rods total, 21 in the bundle) and (35 rods total, 33 in the bundle) ceremonies, where priests hold the bundle to symbolize the vegetable kingdom and eternal life. Preservation initiatives by organizations including the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of (FEZANA), founded in 1987 but expanding educational programs post-2000, and the World Zoroastrian Organisation (WZO), emphasize teaching traditional sourcing of Barsom twigs from rural Iranian regions like to sustain authentic practices amid challenges. Environmental considerations have reinforced the use of durable metal alternatives, minimizing the harvesting of natural plants and aligning with Zoroastrian tenets of ecological reverence, while some communities explore sustainable botanical options to balance and conservation. During the from 2020 to 2022, Zoroastrian groups adapted by conducting virtual rituals, employing symbolic digital or physical representations of the Barsom in online ceremonies like the Azargan fire observance to maintain communal continuity. This evolution upholds the Barsom's ancient symbolism of life's vitality and cosmic order in diverse global contexts.
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