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Levade by Claus von Stauffenberg, German Cavalry School in Hannover
Courbette
Croupade
Ballotade
Capriole

The airs above the ground or school jumps are a series of higher-level, Haute école, classical dressage movements in which the horse leaves the ground. They include the capriole, the courbette, the mezair, the croupade and the levade. None are typically seen in modern competitive dressage. They are performed by horses of various riding academies such as the Spanish Riding School in Vienna and the Cadre Noir in Saumur, and may be seen in other dressage performances. The levade and courbette are a particular feature of the Doma Menorquina, the riding tradition of the island of Menorca.[1] Horses such as the Andalusian, Lusitano, Lipizzan and Menorquín are the breeds most often trained to perform the airs today, in part due to their powerfully conformed hindquarters, which allow them the strength to perform these difficult movements. There were originally seven airs, many of which were used to build into the movements performed today.

There is a popular conception that these movements were originally taught to horses for military purposes, and indeed both the Spanish Riding School and the Cadre Noir are military foundations. However, while agility was necessary on the battlefield, most of the airs as performed today would have exposed the vulnerable underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers.[2] It is therefore more likely that the airs were exercises to develop the military horse and rider, rather than to be employed in combat.

Horses are usually taught each air on the long rein without a rider, which is less strenuous for the animal. However, each movement is meant to eventually be performed under a rider.

The pesade and the levade

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The pesade and levade are the first airs taught to the High School horse, and it is from these that all other airs are taught. In the pesade, the horse raises its forehand off the ground and tucks the forelegs evenly, carrying all weight on the hindquarters, to form a 45-degree angle with the ground.

The levade was first taught at the beginning of the 20th century, asking the horse to hold a position approximately 30–35 degrees from the ground. Unlike the pesade, which is more of a test of balance, the decreased angle makes the levade an extremely strenuous position to hold, and requires a greater effort from the horse. Therefore, many horses are not capable of a good-quality levade. The levade is also a transition movement between work on the ground and the airs above the ground. Neither of these movements are equivalent to rearing, as they require precise control, excellent balance, and a great deal of strength, and are the product of correct training, rather than resistance from the horse.

The horse is asked to enter the pesade or levade from the piaffe, which asks the horse to increasingly engage its hindquarters, lowering them toward the ground and bringing the hind legs more toward its center of gravity. This gives the viewer the impression that the horse appears to sink down in back and rise in front. The position is held for a number of seconds, and then the horse quietly puts the forelegs back on the ground and proceeds at the walk, or stands at the halt. The levade is considered to be pinnacle of collection, as the horse carries all weight on the back legs, and has an extreme tucking of the hindquarters and coiling of the loins.

The capriole, the croupade and the ballotade

[edit]

In the capriole (meaning leap of a goat), the horse jumps from a raised position of the forehand straight up into the air, kicks out with the hind legs, and lands more or less on all four legs at the same time. It requires an enormously powerful horse to perform correctly, and is considered the most difficult of all the airs above the ground. It is first introduced with the croupade, in which the horse does not kick out at the height of elevation, but keeps the hind legs tucked tightly under, and remains parallel to the ground. The horse is then taught the ballotade. In this movement, the horse's hind hooves are positioned so one can see its shoes if watching from behind, but the horse is not asked to kick out. When the horse demonstrates proficiency in the ballotade, the capriole is introduced.

The courbette

[edit]

In the courbette, the horse raises its forehand off the ground, tucks up forelegs evenly, and then jumps forward, never allowing the forelegs to touch down, in a series of "hops". Extremely strong and talented horses can perform five or more leaps forward before having to touch down with the forelegs, although it is more usual to see a series of three or four leaps. The courbette, like the capriole, is first introduced through the easier croupade.

The mezair

[edit]
Mezair

In the mezair, the horse rears up and strikes out with its forelegs. It is similar to a series of levades with a forward motion (not in place), with the horse gradually bringing its legs further under himself in each successive movement and lightly touching the ground with the front legs before pushing up again. The mezair was originally called the courbette by the old dressage masters. It is no longer practiced at the Spanish Riding School.

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Airs above the ground

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Airs above the ground are a series of highly stylized and acrobatic movements in classical dressage, where the horse performs elevated leaps, rears, or bounds while maintaining balance and impulsion under precise rider control, originating from the haute école tradition of French equitation. These movements trace their roots to 18th-century equestrian masters like François Robichon de La Guérinière, who formalized them as part of advanced training to demonstrate the harmony between horse and rider, evolving from earlier Renaissance-era displays that blended military utility with artistic performance. Initially developed to entertain nobility and later adapted by military riding schools such as the de for building rider bravery and seat stability, the airs were not primarily battlefield tactics but public spectacles of equine athleticism. Recognized as an by in 2011 under the broader umbrella of French equitation tradition, they continue to be preserved and performed today at prestigious institutions like the in and the Real Escuela Andaluza del Arte Ecuestre in Jerez. The most notable airs include:
  • Levade: The horse elevates its forehand at a 45-degree angle, folding its forelegs while balancing on bent hind legs.
  • Courbette: The horse rears up and advances forward in successive leaps on its hind legs alone, with forelegs tucked.
  • Croupade: From a suspended position, the horse bucks forcefully, extending its hind legs backward without advancing.
  • Capriole (or cabriole): The horse jumps from a collected canter, tucks its forelegs, kicks out its hind legs mid-air, and lands facing forward.
Unlike the more accessible movements of modern Olympic , such as the and passage, the airs above the ground demand exceptional strength, suppleness, and coordination from both and rider, often performed without stirrups to highlight technical mastery. They remain a pinnacle of classical riding, emphasizing the of "perfecting nature through subtlety," and are biomechanically intense, involving rapid shifts in weight distribution and rein tension to prepare the horse for execution.

Introduction

Definition and Overview

Airs above the ground are a series of advanced haute école movements in classical , characterized by executing controlled leaps that lift it fully off the ground or rears that elevate the while balancing on the hind legs, showcasing profound balance, strength, and collection developed through rigorous . The seven traditional airs are broadly categorized into rearing movements—pesade, levade, courbette, and mezair—and leaping movements—croupade, ballotade, and capriole—each demanding precise control and athleticism from the horse. These maneuvers impose extreme physical demands, necessitating intense engagement of the hindquarters for propulsion and stability, exceptional muscular coordination to achieve suspension or vertical positioning, and sustained collection to prevent collapse under the horse's own weight. In contrast to foundational dressage elements like the or passage, which maintain contact with the ground through elevated but rhythmic footfalls, airs above the ground emphasize complete aerial phases that highlight the pinnacle of equine suppleness and power.

Significance in Classical Dressage

Airs above the ground represent the pinnacle of the horse-rider partnership in classical , demanding profound trust, precise communication, and seamless synchronization to execute movements that require the horse to balance on its hindquarters while elevating the or leaping with controlled power. This ultimate expression of collection and obedience highlights the rider's ability to guide the horse through advanced maneuvers, such as the levade, where the animal rears to approximately a 45-degree angle without forward motion, exemplifying athletic prowess and mental attunement. Such feats underscore the harmony achieved through years of progressive training, transforming the duo into a unified entity capable of defying with elegance. In performances, airs above the ground hold immense artistic value, evoking the ideals of , balance, and spectacle in equestrian art, where the horse's stylized leaps and poses create a visual symphony of grace and power. These movements elevate from mere discipline to a performative form, as seen in haute école displays that blend athleticism with aesthetic refinement, captivating audiences with their poetic depiction of equine capability. The controlled elevation and suspension in the air not only demonstrate technical mastery but also embody the classical pursuit of beauty, mirroring historical equestrian spectacles that celebrated the noble partnership between human and . Recognized by in 2011 as part of the French equitation tradition, an , these movements preserve a legacy of equestrian artistry. From a training perspective, practicing airs above the ground builds exceptional core strength, , and suppleness in the horse, engaging the hind limbs deeply to support the body's weight and fostering overall balance that benefits other equestrian disciplines. These exercises enhance the horse's ability to collect and carry itself, improving muscle development and coordination while preventing strain through gradual progression from foundational work like the . The resulting physical conditioning promotes longevity and versatility, allowing trained horses to perform with reduced risk of in varied activities beyond haute école. Culturally, airs above the ground symbolize mastery over within the classical European equestrian , serving as emblems of refined horsemanship and the triumph of over instinct in institutions like the . Rooted in haute école heritage, they represent a legacy of artistic and technical excellence, preserved as intangible cultural assets that highlight humanity's enduring quest to harmonize with the equine spirit. This symbolism extends to broader ideals of partnership and control, influencing global perceptions of as a profound between rider and mount.

Historical Development

Origins and Military Roots

The airs above the ground emerged in 16th-century during the as advanced components of manège riding, integrated into training programs to enhance equine agility, strength, and balance. These movements, such as rearing and leaping exercises, were practiced in the context of aristocratic equestrian academies and military horsemanship schools, where they served to condition war horses for demanding battlefield conditions. There exists a popular conception that these airs were developed primarily for combat utility, such as rearing to strike with the forelegs or leaping to evade by enemy forces. However, historical treatises indicate their main role was as conditioning exercises to build the horse's physical prowess and the rider's skill, rather than as practical maneuvers, which could render the horse vulnerable during execution. equestrian authors emphasized that such jumps were ill-suited for actual warfare, prioritizing instead their value in developing overall equine fitness and rider control. These practices drew influence from ancient equestrian traditions, evolving through the foundational principles of horsemanship outlined by in the 4th century BCE, which stressed balanced training, rider empathy, and showy parade exercises including rearing to foster partnership between horse and rider. 's On Horsemanship laid the groundwork for later formalized techniques by advocating supple seats and progressive schooling that anticipated the controlled elevations seen in Renaissance airs. Early documentation of these airs appears in seminal treatises, notably Federico Grisone's Gli ordini di cavalcare (1550), the first printed manual on manège riding, which systematically described jumps and elevations as essential for transitioning from military utility to refined display. Grisone's work marked a pivotal shift, codifying oral traditions into structured lessons that highlighted the airs' role in showcasing equestrian artistry while building on foundations.

Evolution in Riding Schools

The institutionalization of airs above the ground began prominently with the founding of the in in 1572 under Habsburg Emperor Maximilian II, who established the institution to showcase advanced equestrian techniques using Spanish horses, later refined through the breeding of Lipizzaner stallions specifically suited for these elevated movements. This standardized the training and performance of airs, transforming them from battlefield maneuvers into disciplined displays of equine artistry, with the Lipizzaners' strength and agility enabling precise execution of levades, caprioles, and other haute école figures. Parallel developments occurred in France, where the École de Cavalerie at —precursor to the renowned —was established in 1763 by King Louis XV to elevate cavalry training, incorporating airs above the ground as demonstrations of rider mastery and horse suppleness. The , formalized in the early 19th century from this foundation, preserved and refined these movements through rigorous instruction, emphasizing their role in fostering balance and obedience. In , the 18th-century Royal Stables under King João V laid the groundwork for classical , influencing later institutions like the modern Portuguese School of Equestrian Art, which revived Baroque-era airs in the late 20th century but drew directly from historical practices of courbettes and mezairs performed for royal audiences. Key figures advanced the codification of airs for noble education during this period. Antoine de Pluvinel, in his early 17th-century manual Le Maneige Royal (published posthumously in 1623), detailed the progression from basic suppleness exercises to advanced unnatural airs like the pesade and croupade, advocating gentle methods to prepare horses for courtly displays while educating young in as a humanist pursuit. Similarly, William Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle, in his 1658 treatise A General System of Horsemanship, systematically described training sequences for airs above the ground, stressing psychological harmony between horse and rider to achieve movements such as the ballotade, positioning them as essential for refined noble accomplishment rather than mere utility. In the , Robichon de La Guérinière further formalized these techniques in his École de Cavalerie (1731), emphasizing subtle aids and biomechanical preparation that became foundational to the haute école tradition. By the , airs above the ground had transitioned from primary military applications to prominent features in performative arts, integrated into elaborate carousels and court spectacles that celebrated monarchical grandeur across . These events, such as the Versailles carousels under and subsequent Portuguese royal demonstrations, showcased synchronized airs to symbolize power and elegance, institutionalizing them within riding schools as both pedagogical tools and .

The Rearing Movements

The Pesade and Levade

The pesade is a controlled rearing movement in which the horse elevates its to form an of approximately 45 degrees with the ground, while the hind legs remain stationary and bent to support the full weight of the body. The forelegs are tucked evenly under the chest, and the horse maintains balance without forward or backward motion, emphasizing a vertical lift from the hindquarters. The levade represents a more advanced iteration of the rearing principle, where the horse achieves a steeper angle of 30 to 35 degrees to the ground, with the hindquarters deeply flexed and the hocks positioned close to or nearly touching the arena surface. This position demands exceptional engagement of the hindquarters, as the horse carries nearly 100% of its weight on the bent hind legs for 2 to 3 seconds, keeping the withers at a height similar to the standing position (within one hand's width). The forelegs fold symmetrically against the chest, and the movement serves as the ultimate demonstration of collection and self-carriage in classical dressage. Key differences between the pesade and levade lie in their degree of collection and physical demands: the pesade functions as an introductory rear with a higher angle and less profound haunch flexion, allowing for easier balance and longer duration, whereas the levade requires deeper bending of the hind leg joints and a lower, more stable posture that prohibits any forward displacement. Progression from pesade to levade builds through intensified hindquarter strength, transforming the initial lift into a refined, seated equilibrium. Both movements trace their origins to transitions from the piaffe, where progressive collection shifts the horse's center of gravity rearward to foster vertical balance, distinguishing them from uncontrolled rearing by prioritizing disciplined hind leg support over impulsive elevation.

The Courbette

The courbette is a haute école movement in classical dressage where the horse rears onto its hind legs from a levade position and performs a series of forward hops while keeping the forelegs tucked and off the ground. In execution, the horse elevates its forehand, bends and joins the forelegs evenly, and advances in 3-5 consecutive bounds powered by the hindquarters, without the forelegs touching the ground between hops. This sequence demands precise balance, with the rider maintaining a vertical alignment to guide the motion and prevent forward collapse. Variations of the courbette include the full form, featuring multiple hops as performed at the , and the single bound version, known as the courvet, which consists of one forward jump from the levade. The full courbette evolved as an extension of the croupade, incorporating forward momentum to enhance the dynamic quality of the rear while building on the tucked-leg leap. The movement places intense physical demands on the horse's hindquarters, testing , strength, and coordination to sustain the elevated, hopping posture over several bounds. For the rider, it requires exceptional stability and subtle aids to preserve alignment amid the motion, often limiting performances to brief sequences due to the exertion involved. Historically, the courbette gained popularity in 18th-century equestrian displays, as illustrated in François Robichon de la Guérinière's École de Cavalerie (1733), where it was showcased for its dramatic and balletic appeal in courtly spectacles. Originally developed to entertain and later adapted for to improve rider skill, it exemplifies the theatrical refinement of airs above the ground during the and eras.

The Mezair

The mezair is a dynamic rearing movement within the airs above the ground, executed as a series of controlled leaps where the horse rises higher in front while balancing on its hindquarters, with the forelegs extending forward and returning to the ground after each bound, allowing for slight forward advancement. This involves a sustained elevation of the forehand, with the hind legs striking the ground in an even, low, and lively cadence to propel the repetition, demanding exceptional collection, impulsion, and balance from the horse. The movement resembles a progression from the levade, incorporating aggressive foreleg extension in a series of "attacks" while maintaining forward motion, distinguishing it from more static rears by its brisk, advancing nature. Originally described as a variant or "half-courbette" by classical masters—less elevated and detached from the ground than the full courbette but more pronounced and raised than the terre-à-terre—the mezair emphasizes rhythmic, energetic bounds rather than tucked hindleg hops. It was featured in early Italian riding manuals, such as those by Federico Grisone in the , as a display of the horse's power and agility, evolving through and equestrian traditions for courtly and military demonstrations like carrousels and parades. By the 18th century, François Robichon de la Guérinière detailed it in École de Cavalerie (1733) as part of high school airs, highlighting its two-beat, canter-like rhythm alternating diagonal pairs of legs. The mezair presents significant challenges due to its requirement for precise timing and profound muscular engagement, posing a high risk of imbalance if the horse's collection falters, and placing considerable strain on the joints and tendons from the repetitive impacts and elevations. Considered an artificial and strenuous exercise, it historically involved harsh training methods that could cause physical harm, contributing to its decline in favor of more humane practices. Today, the mezair is rarely performed, no longer taught at institutions like the , and largely absent from modern competitive after the , when such elaborate airs were phased out in favor of foundational .

The Leaping Movements

The Croupade and Ballotade

The croupade is a leaping movement in classical where the horse leaps straight upward from a collected position such as the , tucking all four legs completely under the body without any visible kick or extension of the hindquarters. This action creates a phase of suspension emphasizing the horse's hindquarter engagement and balance, with the horse landing in place on all four legs. Performed under after initial in-hand training, the croupade requires precise timing from the rider, often aided by subtle aids like a light touch of the to encourage the tuck without disrupting the horse's rhythm. The ballotade builds directly on the croupade as a more advanced variation, involving a higher leap where the horse tucks the hind legs under but allows the hocks and hooves to become briefly visible below the tail, without any kick-like extension or propulsion. In execution, the horse jumps from a similar collected base, with the hind hooves visible from behind during the suspension. This movement heightens the demands on the rider's seat to absorb the increased elevation while preserving the rhythm upon landing. These airs progress sequentially in training, with the croupade serving as the foundational exercise to develop explosive hindquarter power and suspension, paving the way for the ballotade's added element of controlled partial visibility. Both movements build the horse's strength and suppleness without involving full body rotation, focusing instead on airborne collection that enhances overall gymnastic capacity, ultimately preparing for more dynamic leaps like the capriole.

The Capriole

The capriole represents the pinnacle of the leaping in classical , characterized by the horse's full extension of the hind legs in a powerful mid-air, demanding exceptional coordination and strength from both and rider. Performed from a collected canter, the movement begins with the horse shifting its weight backward and jumping upward to approximately double its height at the , tucking the forelegs toward the chest while simultaneously extending the hind legs fully backward and together behind the vertical line of the body. The rider maintains a steady, forward seat to guide the impulse, using subtle aids such as the on the horse's to encourage the leap and without inducing fear. Upon , the horse must touch down simultaneously on all four legs and immediately resume the canter without hesitation or loss of balance, often executing the movement in a series to demonstrate sustained power and recovery. Technically, the capriole requires precise timing to ensure the hind legs clear the ground fully during extension, preventing stumbling or forward pitch upon descent; this full backward generates significant rotational , distinguishing it from preparatory leaps like the croupade where the hind legs remain tucked. The horse's forehand elevates while the hindquarters provide the explosive , with the rider absorbing the motion through independent and aids to preserve straightness and impulsion. Variations exist between schools, such as the style's execution during the ascending phase of the jump, which heightens demands on the rider's balance compared to the school's approach. Regarded as the most difficult haute école movement due to its combination of , extension, and rapid recovery, the capriole tests the horse's supreme athleticism, lively temperament, and muscular development, making it rare even among elite classical programs. It evolved in 17th-century European riding schools from earlier leaping airs like the ballotade, refined by masters such as Antoine de Pluvinel as the "king of airs" for its spectacular display and noble entertainment value.

Training and Preparation

Prerequisites and Foundational Exercises

The mastery of airs above the ground demands a profound foundation in classical , where the horse achieves advanced collection through movements like the and passage, enabling it to shift significant weight onto the hindquarters while maintaining elevation and rhythm. The , performed nearly in place with diagonal pairs of legs striking the ground, builds the hind limb strength and self-carriage essential for lifting the , while the passage introduces heightened suspension and impulsion from a collected , preparing the horse for the explosive power required in airs. These exercises foster the topline musculature and straightness necessary for balance, often developed further through lateral work such as the shoulder-in and travers, which enhance suppleness and prevent compensatory asymmetries that could lead to instability during elevated maneuvers. Foundational exercises emphasize building hindquarter engagement without the added burden of the rider's weight, starting with in-hand where a handler guides to execute the movement on foot, promoting precise diagonal coordination and . Long-rein work, conducted via a and attached to the bit, allows to perform collected gaits and transitions independently, reinforcing impulsion and straightness while the trainer observes and corrects from behind. Ground pole exercises, placed at varying intervals to simulate bascule, further strengthen the hind limbs by encouraging active propulsion and hind-end activation, gradually increasing in complexity to mimic the demands of airs without full elevation. Rider proficiency is equally critical, requiring an independent that remains stable without stirrups, as airs are often practiced stirrup-less to demand core strength and precise from the human partner. Subtle aids—delivered through minimal pressure, shifts, and contact—must guide the horse without inducing tension or imbalance, a honed through years of progressive training. Horses suitable for airs are typically at least seven years of age, having completed solid basic to ensure skeletal and muscular maturity, with athletic breeds like Lipizzaners or Lusitanos often selected for their conformation and . To mitigate risks of , training progresses gradually, with frequent assessments of the horse's readiness through biomechanical indicators like trunk stability and rein tension during preparation phases, ensuring optimal balance before attempting airs. Veterinary evaluations, including health checks via flexion tests and lameness exams, are integral to confirm the horse's physical suitability and monitor for early signs of strain, prioritizing welfare in this physically demanding discipline.

Execution Techniques

Execution of airs above the ground relies on subtle rider cues emphasizing balance through the seat and , often minimizing use to encourage the horse's self-carriage. Riders shift their weight rearward to signal while maintaining a deep, following seat that absorbs the horse's motion without restricting it. Initial unmounted practice frequently employs long , where the handler walks behind the horse using extended reins and a whip to guide collection and impulsion, or pillars—fixed posts between which the horse performs contained movements like the croupade to refine timing and strength. For rearing movements such as the levade or courbette, the rider applies a light leg aid at the girth to engage the hindquarters, paired with a precise half-halt on the to and elevate the without prompting a defensive rear. In leaping movements like the croupade or capriole, a driving seat—characterized by forward and relaxed, lengthening legs—provides impulsion from a collected canter, prompting the horse to project the hind legs while the rider leans back to counter the upward force. These aids build on foundational exercises like the for hindquarter engagement. Common challenges include over-engagement of the hindquarters, which can lead to if the horse loses balance during , requiring riders to correct with subtle adjustments to prevent hollowing or falling forward. Training progresses by starting with single repetitions to establish clarity in the aids, gradually building duration and sequencing multiple airs while monitoring for fatigue or evasion. Specialized equipment, such as saddles without stirrups, supports under-saddle execution by forcing reliance on the for stability, with the overall progression moving from work-in-hand to ridden performance under expert supervision.

Modern Practice and Legacy

Institutions and Breeds

The in , established in 1572, is the world's oldest institution dedicated to classical haute école , where Lipizzaner stallions perform airs above the ground such as the levade, capriole, and courbette during public spectacles in the Winter Riding School. These white stallions, bred at the Lipizzaner Federal Stud in Piber since 1920, undergo intensive training starting at age four, progressing over six to ten years to master the airs as the pinnacle of their education, emphasizing balance, suppleness, and precision. Riders at the school complete multi-year apprenticeships, often lasting up to 12 years, rooted in classical methods that build from foundational exercises to advanced airs, with only the most skilled pairs selected for performances. In , the at , founded in 1825 as part of the French Institute of Horse and Riding (IFCE), specializes in airs above the ground including the courbette, croupade, and capriole, performed without stirrups in a style derived from 18th-century Versailles traditions. The institution trains riders and horses from diverse breeds, prioritizing those with strong conformation for the demanding leaps, through a rigorous program that integrates military principles with haute école techniques, culminating in the airs after years of progressive schooling in collection and impulsion. The School of Equestrian Art in , re-established in 1979 to revive 18th-century royal traditions, employs stallions exclusively bred from the Alter Real State Stud for its gala performances featuring airs above the ground, such as the mezair and levade, alongside classical . Training follows historical methods outlined in 18th-century equitation texts, with riders undergoing extended apprenticeships focused on harmony and lightness, preparing horses over several years to execute the airs as capstone demonstrations of equestrian artistry. In , the Real Escuela Andaluza del Arte Ecuestre in , founded in 1973, preserves haute école traditions using purebred Andalusian horses to perform airs above the ground, including the levade, capriole, and courbette, in shows like "How the Andalusian Horses Dance." Riders and horses train progressively over years, emphasizing the breed's natural aptitude for elevation and balance in classical spectacles that blend artistry with historical . Preferred breeds for airs above the ground include the Lipizzaner, valued for its endurance, compact build, and iconic white coat that matures around age seven, enabling sustained power in movements like the pesade. The Andalusian and , both Iberian types, excel due to their agility, muscular hindquarters, and inherent flexibility, which support explosive elevation and controlled suspension in airs such as the capriole. Suitability criteria emphasize a calm, intelligent to handle the mental focus required, combined with strong hindquarters for propulsion and a balanced conformation to maintain poise during leaps, traits historically selected in these breeds for haute école work. Beyond these core institutions, the practice of airs has spread globally, with occasional performances at the Académie Équestre de Versailles, founded in 2003 in the palace's Great Stables, where mixed-breed horses execute classical movements including airs in theatrical spectacles that tour internationally. Private haute école centers, such as those affiliated with Iberian breed associations, also offer training programs mirroring classical apprenticeships, fostering the tradition in regions like and through and multi-year rider education.

Contemporary Relevance

In contemporary equestrian practice, airs above the ground are excluded from Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) and Olympic competitions due to the extreme physical demands they place on horses, including significant joint strain and muscular stress that exceed the requirements of standard tests. These movements, such as the levade and capriole, are not included in FEI rules or test sheets, and performing them would result in penalties for exceeding movement parameters, as noted in judging guidelines for levels like Grand Prix. Similarly, the Equestrian Federation (USEF) explicitly prohibits airs above the ground in its division rules, limiting their execution to non-competitive settings to prioritize equine welfare. Instead, they are confined to demonstrations and performances, where they showcase classical haute école artistry without the risks associated with scored events. Airs above the ground play a prominent cultural role today as tourist attractions and preservers of equestrian heritage, particularly at renowned institutions like the in , where Lipizzaner stallions perform them in public shows to highlight centuries-old traditions amid the dominance of modern competitive sports. These exhibitions draw global audiences, emphasizing the aesthetic and historical value of the movements while fostering appreciation for classical outside athletic arenas. By maintaining these practices, such venues contribute to the cultural legacy of , balancing spectacle with ethical considerations for health. Ongoing biomechanical research since 2013 has focused on quantifying the physical impacts of airs above the ground to inform safer training protocols and enhance welfare. For instance, studies at the École Nationale d'Équitation in have analyzed limb accelerations reaching up to 276 m/s² and rein tensions peaking at 65 N during preparation phases, revealing higher joint strain in movements like the courbette compared to the croupade. A 2024 investigation further objectified these dynamics, showing stable trunk positions and reduced post-peak tensions that minimize discomfort, thereby guiding écuyers in selecting and conditioning to lower injury risks. Veterinary advancements, including these evidence-based insights, have led to refined preparatory exercises that reduce overload on equine joints and muscles, promoting in performance horses engaged in classical disciplines. Looking ahead, airs above the ground retain niche appeal within classical equestrian circles, with potential for occasional revivals in freestyle exhibitions at non-FEI events, supported by welfare-focused research that ensures their sustainable practice.

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  17. https://www.srs.at/en/about-us/geschichte
  18. https://www.uslipizzan.org/history
  19. https://www.royal-horse.com/en-id/encyclopedie/the-cadre-noir-saumur/
  20. https://www.parquesdesintra.pt/en/parks-monuments/portuguese-school-of-equestrian-art/history/
  21. https://www.jstor.org/stable/392816
  22. https://www.lrgaf.org/training/newcastle.htm
  23. https://www.kipmistral.com/francois-robichon-de-la-gueriniere-an-insightful-analysis-of-lecole-de-cavalerie/
  24. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/renaissance-quarterly/article/patronage-politics-of-equestrian-ballet-allegory-allusion-and-satire-in-the-courts-of-seventeenthcentury-italy-and-france/B325FAC5204465711D05894EC6E8460B
  25. https://www.horseloversmath.com/spanish-riding-school-facts/
  26. https://dressagetoday.com/theory/experts-29431/
  27. https://www.usdf.org/EduDocs/Training/LearningAboutthelevade_2003_oct.pdf
  28. https://www.horsemagazine.com/thm/2020/11/high-school-the-final-building-block-of-classical-dressage/
  29. https://www.britannica.com/topic/courbette
  30. https://www.zilvermaan.eu/pages/links/horsemansprogres.pdf
  31. https://www.angelfire.com/sports/dressage/pages/classicaleq.html
  32. https://www.usdf.org/EduDocs/History/historyofriding.pdf
  33. https://dressagetoday.com/instruction/teaching-capriole-29136/
  34. https://dressagetoday.com/theory/in-hand-work-with-rafael-soto/
  35. https://vndressage.com/the-importance-of-regular-vet-check-ups-for-dressage-horses/
  36. https://tempusrenatus.org/2021/08/01/expressions-of-classical-horsemanship-part-2-the-work-in-hand/
  37. https://www.kipmistral.com/reflections-on-the-art-of-horsemanship-h-j-heyer-preface-to-see-and-understand-the-horse-from-within-before-trying-to-improve-on-it/
  38. https://hoovesblog.com/2014/08/19/rear-versus-levade/
  39. https://www.srs.at/en/
  40. https://www.srs.at/en/lipizzaner/lipizzaners
  41. https://www.srs.at/en/visitor-information/vienna/opening-hours
  42. https://www.ifce.fr/en/cadre-noir/the-cadre-noir/the-airs-above-the-ground/
  43. https://www.ifce.fr/en/cadre-noir/
  44. https://www.visitportugal.com/en/content/escola-portuguesa-de-arte-equestre
  45. https://www.parquesdesintra.pt/en/parks-monuments/portuguese-school-of-equestrian-art/
  46. https://www.realescuela.org/en/visits-shows/show-how-the-andalusian-horses-dance/
  47. https://olympicequestriandressage.wordpress.com/2011/06/16/equestrian-dressage-airs-above-the-ground/
  48. https://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/estate/great-stables/equestrian-academy-versailles
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