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Demetrius II the Self-Sacrificer or the Devoted (Georgian: დემეტრე II თავდადებული, romanized: demet're II tavdadebuli) (1259–12 March 1289) of the Bagrationi dynasty, was king (mepe) of Eastern Georgia reigning from 1270 until his execution by the Mongol Ilkhans in 1289.

Key Information

Early life

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Demetrius, born in 1259, was the second son and third child of King David VII of Georgia. His mother was David's third wife Gvantsa née Kakhaberidze. He was 2 years old when Gvantsa was put to death by the Mongols as a reaction to David's abortive rebellion against the Ilkhan hegemony. David himself died in 1270.[1]

Demetrius had an elder half-brother George, an heir apparent, who died before his father's death in 1268, and an elder half-sister Tamar, whom Demetrius subsequently married off, with great reluctance, to a son of the Mongol official Arghun-Agha.[2]

Reign

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He succeeded on his father's death in 1270, when he was 11 years old. He ruled for some time under the regency of Sadun Mankaberdeli, the Atabeg and Amirspasalar designated by the Mongols. It is for this reason that upon the death of Sadun in 1282, Demetrius refused the post of atabeg to his son Khutlubuga and made him a sworn enemy.

Although he continued to be titled "king of Georgians and Abkhazians, etc", Demetrius's rule extended only over the eastern part of the kingdom. Western Georgia was in the hands of the descendants of David VI Narin who proclaimed themselves kings of western Georgia, while the province of Samtskhe, governed by the independent prince Beka I Jaqeli, was directly subject to the Mongols.

Demetrius also participated in the Mongol campaigns in the Middle East against the Mamluks of Egypt and particularly distinguished himself with Beka I Jaqeli at the head of a Georgian army of 15,000 men under the orders of Möngke Temür, brother of Abaqa Khan, during the Second Battle of Homs in 1281. Despite the defeat of the Mongol troops, the Georgians reported significant spoils.[3]

Georgian coin of Abaqa during the rule of Demetrius II, with Chritian cross. Tiflis mint, 1281–1286.[4][5]

Demetrius behaved like a loyal subject of the Ilkhan; he was a supporter of Tekuder (1282-1284), a Mongol converted to Islam, then of Arghun (1284-1291), brought to the throne in reaction by traditional Mongol Buddhist or Nestorian leaders. He developed friendly relations with the Mongolian nobility. Although he was already married to a Greek princess of Trebizond, he took the Mongolian princess Solghar as his second wife.

In 1288, on the order of Arghun, he subdued the rebel province of Derbent, near the Caspian Sea. The same year, Arghun revealed a plot organized by his powerful minister Buqa, whose son was married to Demetrius's daughter. Bugha and his family were massacred, and the Georgian king, suspected to have been involved in the plot, was ordered to ride to the Mongol capital, lest Arghun threatened to invade Georgia. Despite much advice from nobles, Demetrius headed for the Khan's residence to face apparent death, and was imprisoned there. He was beheaded at Movakan on 12 March 1289. He was buried at Mtskheta, Georgia, and canonized by the Georgian Orthodox Church.

He was succeeded by his cousin Vakhtang II.

Marriages and children

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Main article: Family of Demetrius II of Georgia

The first of Demetrius' wives was a Trapezuntine princess (She might have been a daughter of the emperor Manuel I of Trebizond), whom he married c. 1273–1274 or 1277.[1] By this woman, Demetrius had four sons and a daughter:[6]

Demetrius' second wife was the Mongol noblewoman Solghar, by whom he had two sons and a daughter:[6]

Demetrius married thirdly, c. 1280, Natela, a daughter of Beka I Jaqeli, Duke of Samtskhe and Lord High Steward of Georgia, by whom he had a son:

References

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Bibliography

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Demetrius II of Georgia

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Demetrius II (c. 1259 – 12 March 1289), known as the Self-Sacrificer, was a king of Georgia from the Bagrationi dynasty who reigned from 1270 until his death. The son of David VII Ulu and his wife Gvantsa, he ascended the throne at age eleven after his father's demise and amid ongoing Mongol domination of the region. During his rule, Georgia remained a vassal of the Ilkhanate, requiring tribute and military service; Demetrius participated in Mongol-led campaigns, including the Second Battle of Homs in 1281 under Ilkhan Abaqa, and subdued the fortress of Derbend in 1288 on orders from Ilkhan Arghun. In 1289, facing Arghun's suspicions of his involvement in a plot by the minister Buqa and threats of invasion, Demetrius rejected counsel to resist and instead journeyed to the Mongol court to submit himself, sparing his kingdom further devastation; he was imprisoned and subsequently beheaded at Movakan. Buried in Mtskheta, he was later canonized as a saint by the Georgian Orthodox Church for this act of devotion.

Origins and Early Life

Birth and Parentage

Demetrius II was born circa 1259 as the second son and third child of David VII Ulu, king of Georgia from 1247 to 1270. His mother was Gvantsa, David VII's third wife and daughter of Kakhaber Kakhaberidze, an eristavi (governor) of the region whose family held significant influence in eastern Georgia. Gvantsa had previously been married to Avag Mkhargrdzeli, a Mongol-aligned noble, before wedding David VII around 1252 following Avag's death; this union produced Demetrius amid the Bagrationi dynasty's efforts to navigate Mongol overlordship. The precise date of Demetrius's birth remains undocumented in surviving chronicles, but it is inferred from his reported age of two at the time of his mother's execution by Mongol forces in 1261, an event tied to David VII's rebellion against authority.

Childhood Amid Mongol Domination

Demetrius II, born circa 1259, was the son of King David VII Ulu and his consort Gvantsa Kakhaberidze, entering a Georgian realm that had been reduced to vassal status under the Mongol Ilkhanate following the decisive subjugation campaigns of the 1240s, which imposed annual tribute, military levies, and direct oversight by Mongol darughachi administrators. David's reign over eastern Georgia, centered in Tbilisi, involved navigating this overlordship through diplomacy and periodic submissions, as the kingdom's resources were strained by demands for cavalry contingents in Ilkhanid wars against rivals like the Mamluks. In 1260–1261, David VII mounted a against Mongol authority, seeking to assert greater amid the Ilkhanate's internal transitions after Möngke Khan's in 1259; the uprising failed decisively, with Mongol forces under Noqtai capturing the royal family and executing Gvantsa, leaving the two-year-old motherless amid the reprisals that included hostage-taking and ransom exactions on Georgian nobles. reconciled with the Ilkhans in 1262, regaining his but under stricter terms, which perpetuated the environment of coerced loyalty during 's formative years. The young prince's upbringing in the court occurred against this backdrop of subjugation, where Bagratid legitimacy persisted but was contingent on fulfilling Ilkhanid quotas—estimated at up to 20,000 troops and substantial silver tribute annually—fostering a climate of restrained royal authority and cultural resilience through Orthodox monastic patronage, even as Mongol oversight limited independent policy. By 1270, upon David VII's death, the eleven-year-old inherited a emblematic of this dominated childhood, with regency arrangements involving Mongol-aligned Georgian atabegs to manage the minor king's early rule.

Ascension to the Throne

Succession from David VII

David VII Ulu, who had ruled the eastern Georgian kingdom of Kartli as a Mongol vassal since approximately 1247, died in 1270 at around age 55. His passing occurred amid ongoing subjugation to the Ilkhanate, following the Mongol conquests that had dismantled Georgia's independence decades earlier. David was buried at Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta, adhering to Bagratid tradition for royal interments. The throne passed directly to his son, Demetrius II, born circa 1259 and thus a minor of about 11 years at the time of ascension. As a Mongol , the succession required approval; the overlords installed the young prince as king of eastern Georgia to maintain continuity of and control, bypassing potential rivals such as Demetrius's elder half-siblings from David's prior unions. Initial governance fell to Mongol-aligned administrators, including Sadun Mankaberdeli, who handled affairs during Demetrius's minority while ensuring loyalty to the khans. This arrangement reflected the Ilkhanate's practice of propping up pliable Bagratid heirs to extract resources without full annexation, though it left the realm vulnerable to internal factionalism and external pressures.

Initial Challenges as Minor Ruler

Demetrius II ascended the throne of Eastern Georgia in 1270 following the death of his father, King David VII Ulu, at the age of approximately 11 years. His coronation required the explicit approval of the Ilkhan Abaqa Khan, underscoring the kingdom's vassal status within the Mongol Ilkhanate, which demanded regular tribute payments—estimated at 15,000 dinars annually alongside military levies—and restricted independent foreign policy. This external overlordship compounded the vulnerabilities of a minor ruler, as Georgian kings were compelled to host Mongol darughachis (governors) who oversaw tax collection and enforced compliance, often through punitive raids if obligations faltered. Internally, Demetrius's youth necessitated reliance on regency-like figures, notably the Mongol-appointed Sadun Mankaberdi, who dominated administrative and military affairs until his death in 1281. Sadun, as a key enforcer of Ilkhanid interests, prioritized Mongol directives over royal initiatives, limiting Demetrius's ability to assert personal authority or address domestic unrest. The kingdom's recent fragmentation, with Western Georgia under the rival Bagratid branch led by David VI Narin in , further eroded central control, fostering noble factionalism and localized power struggles that a child king could scarcely mediate. These constraints were exacerbated by the personal traumas of Demetrius's early life, including the execution of his mother, Gvantsa, by Mongol forces in 1261 when he was two years old, which destabilized the royal household and symbolized the pervasive threat of Ilkhanid reprisals against perceived disloyalty. Efforts to repopulate Mongol-ravaged territories and restore economic viability were thus deferred, as the minor sovereign focused on survival amid a rife with Mongol surveillance and noble intrigue, setting a precarious foundation for his reign until achieving greater autonomy post-1281.

Reign Under Mongol Suzerainty

Vassalage and Administrative Policies

Demetrius II's reign (c. 1270–1289) occurred under the of the , where Georgia functioned as a obligated to recognize the authority of the ruling Ilkhan through symbolic and practical means, including the minting of dirhams in Tiflis bearing the khan's name alongside Christian symbols. This coinage practice underscored the subordination of the Georgian monarchy to Mongol overlords, such as (r. 1265–1282), while allowing limited expression of local religious identity. Vassal obligations encompassed annual payments—typically heavy impositions of , silver, and extracted via local taxation—and the supply of troops for Ilkhanid military endeavors, though precise tribute quanta for Demetrius's era remain undocumented in primary records. Military service formed a core element of vassalage, with Demetrius II leading Georgian contingents in Ilkhanid campaigns against the of from 1277 to 1281 under Abaqa, demonstrating tactical prowess that earned temporary favor from the khans. In 1288, he further complied by suppressing rebellion in the Daghestani province of on Khan's directive, reinforcing Georgia's role as a strategic buffer and auxiliary force within the Ilkhanate's western frontier. These engagements highlight the causal linkage between compliance and regime survival, as non-adherence risked punitive expeditions that had already fragmented Georgian unity post-1220s conquests. Administratively, Demetrius ascended as an 11-year-old minor in 1270 following David VII's death, prompting a regency under Sadun Mankaberdeli, a Mongol-aligned who managed court affairs until the king's majority. Governance retained Bagratid traditions, with authority delegated to eristavis (provincial dukes) for tax collection and local order, but operated under Ilkhanid oversight via resident darughachis (governors) who monitored flows and suppressed . Demetrius's policies emphasized internal consolidation amid external pressures, maneuvering Ilkhanid succession intrigues to preserve autonomy, yet systemic Mongol exactions—enforced through periodic censuses and harsh reprisals—eroded fiscal capacity and noble loyalty, constraining reforms to mere stabilization rather than revival of pre-conquest centralization.

Internal Consolidation Efforts

Demetrius II ascended the throne of eastern Georgia in 1269 at approximately age ten, following the death of his father David VII Ulu, under the heavy shadow of Ilkhanid Mongol . His early reign was dominated by a regency led by the Armenian noble Sadun Mankaberdeli, appointed vizier by the , who wielded significant administrative influence in collecting and managing royal affairs. This arrangement reflected the fragmented internal power structure, where royal authority depended on Mongol approval and collaboration with non-Georgian elites to maintain order and fiscal obligations. As reached maturity around 1277, he transitioned to , focusing on reasserting Bagratid control over key noble factions to prevent further erosion of central authority. Internal discord arose from the exhaustion of Mongol military demands, which led to widespread pillaging of church lands by war-weary subjects, undermining social cohesion and support vital for legitimacy. To counter this, Demetrius pursued alliances with prominent Georgian houses, notably through his to Natela, of Beka Jaqeli of Samtskhe, despite an existing with a Greek princess; this union produced , who later restored royal power. He also curbed the ambitions of the Mankaberdeli family post-Sadun's death, favoring Orbelian nobles for high offices like to balance influences and secure loyalty. Domestically, Demetrius emphasized infrastructure and piety to foster unity: he restored monasteries, constructed churches, and fortified strategic sites during interludes of relative peace, enhancing defensive capabilities and royal prestige. Charitable distributions to the poor and infirm at night aimed to alleviate hardships from tribute burdens, bolstering popular allegiance amid noble rivalries. These measures, though constrained by vassalage, represented pragmatic efforts to consolidate administrative and in a kingdom strained by external overlordship and internal fatigue.

Military Campaigns and Engagements

Service in Ilkhanate Expeditions Against Mamluks

Demetrius II, as king of Georgia and vassal to the , fulfilled military obligations by leading Georgian troops in expeditions against the orchestrated by Ilkhan from 1277 to 1281. These campaigns aimed to counter Mamluk expansion in following earlier Mongol setbacks, with Georgian contingents integrated into larger forces comprising Mongol cavalry, Armenian auxiliaries under King Leo II, and other vassal levies. Georgian chronicles record Demetrius personally commanding units, reflecting the kingdom's strategic position as a conduit for operations southward through the . A pivotal engagement occurred at the Second Battle of Homs on 29 October 1281, where armies under general Möngke Temür clashed with forces led by Sultan near in . Demetrius II and his troops, alongside noble Beka I Jaqeli, distinguished themselves in the fighting, contributing to the Mongol rout of the center despite Qalawun's tactical withdrawal. The battle resulted in heavy losses, including the capture of emirs and baggage, though gains proved ephemeral as Qalawun regrouped and reasserted control over by 1285. Demetrius's service underscored Georgia's enforced role in , balancing loyalty to Mongol suzerains against regional threats from -aligned powers.

Rebellions Against Mongol Overlords and Internal Rivals

sought to exploit divisions among the Ilkhanid rulers to enhance Georgian autonomy, engaging in political maneuvering amid the internal conflicts of the Mongol elite. This strategy, however, positioned him at odds with Mongol overlords and pro-Mongol Georgian nobles who favored strict vassalage. Internal tensions escalated following the death of Sadun Mankaberdeli, a key during 's minority, in 1282; denied the position to Sadun's son Khutlubuga, instead appointing Tarsaich Orbelian, thereby alienating Khutlubuga and fostering enmity among factions loyal to Mongol interests. In 1288, suspicions of Demetrius's disloyalty crystallized when Ilkhan Khan uncovered a involving his Buqa, who was married to Demetrius's daughter Rusudan. Buqa and his family were executed, and Demetrius was implicated in the plot, prompting Arghun to summon him to the Mongol court under threat of invasion. Rather than risking widespread devastation, Demetrius voluntarily submitted himself in 1288, a decision advised against by his nobles but aimed at sparing Georgia further Mongol reprisals. Imprisoned upon arrival, Demetrius was beheaded on March 12, 1289, at Movakan, effectively ending his efforts to navigate Mongol through intrigue and marking the culmination of these rebellious undertones against overlord authority. The execution intensified internal divisions, as figures like Khutlubuga gained prominence in the ensuing , further complicating Georgian resistance to Mongol dominance.

Personal Life and Character

Marriages, Polygamy, and Progeny

Demetrius II, a devout Christian, nonetheless engaged in polygamy by maintaining three concurrent wives, a practice that drew criticism from Catholicos Nik'oloz for contravening ecclesiastical norms. His first wife was a daughter of the emperor of Trebizond (likely Manuel I Komnenos, with her name recorded variably as Theodora or Irene in later traditions), a union forged for political alliance amid Mongol overlordship. This marriage produced five children: sons David (who succeeded as David VIII of Georgia), Vakhtang (later Vakhtang III, king of Imereti), Lasha, and Manovel (Manuel); and daughter Rusudan, who married a son of Mongol Grand Emir Buga before remarrying the Georgian feudal lord Taka Panaskerteli after her first husband's execution in a plot against Khan Arghun. His second wife was a Mongol (Tatar) noblewoman, by whom he fathered three children: sons Baidu and Iadgar (Yadgar), and daughter Jigda. These offspring reflected the intermarriages common under Ilkhanid , though their fates intertwined with the volatile politics of the period, including succession disputes following Demetrius's execution. The third wife, Natela, daughter of the Samtskhe ruler Beka Jaqeli, was abducted by Demetrius despite his prior unions, underscoring the era's feudal power dynamics and personal assertions of authority. She bore him a son, Giorgi, who later reigned as George V "the Brilliant" (1314–1346) and contributed to Georgia's temporary resurgence.
ChildMotherNotable Details
David VIIITrebizond princessSucceeded as king of Georgia (r. 1293–1311).
Vakhtang IIITrebizond princessKing of (r. 1293–1301).
LashaTrebizond princessLimited historical record; involved in familial succession.
Manovel (Manuel)Trebizond princessNamed after Comnenian heritage; no independent reign.
RusudanTrebizond princessMarried Mongol nobility, then Georgian lord; survived into post-execution era.
BaiduMongol wifeEngaged in regional conflicts post-father's death.
Iadgar (Yadgar)Mongol wifeParticipated in succession struggles.
JigdaMongol wifeDaughter with scant further documentation.
Giorgi V "the Brilliant"Natela JaqeliKing of Georgia (r. 1314–1346); restored national strength.

Piety, Charitable Works, and Architectural Patronage

Demetrius II, known posthumously as "the Devout" or "the Self-Sacrificer," demonstrated profound personal piety throughout his reign, shaped by early adversities including the execution of his mother by Mongol forces, which deepened his Christian faith. He adhered strictly to Orthodox practices, seeking counsel from Abraam IV before major decisions, and exemplified sacrificial devotion by surrendering himself to Mongol overlords in 1289 to avert further devastation upon his people, invoking the biblical principle of laying down one's life for friends (John 15:13). Prior to his execution, he received the Holy Gifts and prayed fervently, maintaining composure amid . In periods of relative peace under Ilkhanid , engaged in charitable works by anonymously distributing royal wealth at night to the poor, infirm, and orphans, reflecting a commitment to almsgiving as an expression of Christian despite the kingdom's heavy burdens. These acts, conducted covertly to avoid political complications, underscore a private insulated from the public demands of vassalage. Demetrius also acted as a patron of religious , commissioning the construction and restoration of churches and monasteries during lulls in Mongol exactions, thereby bolstering Georgia's infrastructure amid external pressures. He simultaneously reinforced fortifications, blending spiritual with pragmatic defense, though specific projects attributable to him remain sparsely documented in surviving records. His burial in Mtskheta's , a pre-existing royal , symbolizes this continuity of pious legacy.

Downfall and Execution

Capture and Trial by Ilkhans

In 1288, during Ilkhan Khan's campaign against internal rivals, including the powerful Mongol governor Buqa Timur (also known as Bugha Chingsang), suspicions arose regarding II's potential involvement in a conspiracy against Arghun, stemming from his familial ties as Buqa's son-in-law. Buqa, who had governed regions including parts of the and harbored ambitions for greater power, was executed on January 17, 1289, along with his associates, prompting Arghun to summon Demetrius to his camp in under threat of a devastating invasion of Georgia if he refused. Despite counsel from his nobles to resist or flee, Demetrius chose to avert Mongol reprisals against his kingdom and people, traveling voluntarily to the Ilkhan's (camp) where he was immediately imprisoned. Upon interrogation, Mongol authorities found no of his guilt in the plot but proceeded with punishment regardless, subjecting him to before ordering his execution by beheading on March 12, 1289, at Movakan (likely near Maragha in present-day ). This act of submission preserved Georgia from immediate devastation, though it marked the end of Demetrius's reign and highlighted the precarious status of the kingdom under Ilkhanid oversight, where loyalty was enforced through fear of collective retribution. His body was later returned to Georgia and interred at in .

Martyrdom and Immediate Aftermath

Demetrius II surrendered himself to Ilkhan in 1288 to atone for a against Mongol led by his general Todbagar, aiming to shield his kingdom from severe reprisals. Despite this act of , he was tortured and beheaded on March 12, 1289, at Movakan (modern-day Samaxi region in ). Georgian chronicles portray his final moments as devout, with the king receiving the and praying before execution, framing his death as voluntary martyrdom for national redemption. Catholicos Abraham IV retrieved Demetrius's remains from the court and transported them to , where they were interred at . This repatriation underscored immediate Georgian reverence for his sacrifice, though formal canonization occurred later. In the aftermath, appointed Demetrius's son David VIII as king of Georgia to maintain Mongol oversight, while installing another son, Vakhtang III, in western territories, effectively partitioning influence without fully dismantling the Bagrationi line. This succession stabilized vassal relations temporarily but perpetuated extraction, with no recorded widespread revolts immediately following the execution.

Legacy and Historical Assessment

Canonization and Religious Veneration

Demetrius II was posthumously canonized by the as a martyr-saint, recognized for his in surrendering to forces on March 12, 1289, to avert further Mongol reprisals against the Georgian populace and clergy. This act, which led to his beheading at Movakan, earned him the epithet "the Self-Sacrificer" (or "the Devoted" in some traditions), symbolizing his devotion to Orthodox Christianity and the kingdom amid subjugation to non-Christian overlords. His relics were interred at in , a major site of Georgian royal burials and religious significance, where they remain venerated as those of a royal confessor who prioritized faith over temporal power. The canonization, occurring in the medieval period shortly after his death, reflects the Georgian Church's pattern of honoring rulers who resisted foreign domination while upholding Orthodox piety, without formal processes akin to later Western models but through synodal acclaim and hagiographic tradition. Veneration centers on his role as a protector against infidel incursions, with liturgical commemoration on in the Eastern Orthodox calendar, including the Georgian rite, emphasizing hymns and readings that portray him as a model of sacrificial kingship. Icons depict him in royal attire with martyr's symbols, often alongside other Georgian saints like Queen Tamar, underscoring his lineage and fidelity during the era. No widespread reports of miracles are historically attested beyond his exemplary death, but his cult reinforces Georgian national identity tied to Orthodox resilience, distinct from broader Eastern veneration of warrior-saints like Demetrius of Thessalonica.

Evaluation of Achievements and Strategic Decisions

Demetrius II's primary achievements centered on his contributions to the Ilkhanate's campaigns, where he demonstrated valor and tactical competence. Between 1277 and 1281, he participated in Abaqa Khan's expeditions against the , notably distinguishing himself at the Second Battle of on October 29, 1281, contributing to a Mongol victory that temporarily checked Egyptian expansion in . In 1288, he successfully subdued the rebellious province of Derbend on orders from Arghun Khan, reinforcing Georgian forces' utility as troops and potentially securing temporary relief from demands. These engagements highlighted his ability to integrate Georgian contingents into larger Mongol operations, leveraging alliances—such as his marriage to a Mongol princess—to maintain a semblance of royal authority amid subjugation. Strategically, Demetrius II's initial policy of loyalty to successive Ilkhans, including support for the Muslim convert (1282–1284) and later (1284–1291), preserved eastern Georgia's fragile autonomy by avoiding direct confrontation with overwhelmingly superior Mongol forces, which had decimated the region since the 1230s invasions. This vassalage enabled resource extraction for campaigns abroad, arguably stabilizing internal rule during his minority ascension in 1270 and subsequent regency challenges. However, his suspected involvement in a 1289 plot against —possibly tied to broader noble discontent with Mongol exactions—represented a high-risk bid for independence, ignoring the Ilkhanate's logistical dominance and history of crushing revolts, as evidenced by prior suppressions in the . Despite advice to flee, he surrendered to avert widespread devastation, a decision that spared immediate ruin but ended in his execution on March 12, 1289, underscoring the perils of underestimating imperial retaliation. In assessment, Demetrius II's tenure reflects pragmatic adaptation to Mongol yielding short-term gains in military prestige and dynastic continuity, yet his culminating exposed flawed calculus: empirical patterns of Ilkhanid responses to defiance prioritized exemplary punishment over negotiation, rendering such uprisings causally futile without coordinated regional alliances, which Georgia lacked. His sacrifices arguably sowed seeds for later resurgence under his son , who expelled Mongol remnants by 1314, but strategically, prolonged submission might have conserved resources for eventual opportunistic revolt rather than premature confrontation.

References

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  16. https://www.worldhistory.org/Ilkhanate/
  17. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/traditio/article/fifteenthcentury-bagratids-and-the-institution-of-collegial-sovereignty-in-georgia/9F69C718DFE40CAAFAF01CBDF06D5378
  18. https://cristoraul.org/BYZANTIUM/A-History-of-Georgia.pdf
  19. https://orthochristian.com/97286.html
  20. https://georgianorthodoxchurch.wordpress.com/2013/03/25/king-demetre-the-devoted/
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