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Tekuder
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Key Information
Ahmed Tekuder (Mongolian: Төгөлдөр, romanized: Tögöldör, lit. 'perfect'; Persian: تکودار; c. 1246 – 10 August 1284), also known as Sultan Ahmad, was the sultan of the Ilkhanate from 1282 to 1284. He was a son of Hulegu and brother of Abaqa. He was eventually succeeded by his nephew Arghun Khan.
Early life
[edit]Tekuder was born c. 1246 in Mongolia to Hulagu and Qutui Khatun from the Mongol Khongirad tribe as his seventh son. His birth date is not mentioned elsewhere but according to sources he died aged 37, therefore his birth year must have been around 1246 or 1247.[1] He was baptized in his childhood as a Nestorian Christian and was given the name Nicholas. He arrived in the Ilkhanate sometime in the 1260s with his mother Qutui and brother Tekshin. Years later, he was granted governorship of Nahavand and Dinavar by Abaqa, who respected his mother Qutui. Qutui was also invested with territories with income of 100.000 gold coins near Mayyafariqin by Abaqa.[2]
Conversion to Islam
[edit]The circumstances of Tekuder's conversion to Islam are unknown. However, according to Ibn al-Fuwati he had been given information about his religious mentor and perhaps the person responsible for Tekuder's conversion - Kamal al-Din Abd ul-Rahman. He was described as a Greek slave of al-Musta'sim Billah, who rose in rank thanks to his skills at alchemy and met Abaqa to whom he was introduced by Aybak.[3] Abd ul-Rahman was introduced to Tekuder later by his mother Qutui Khatun.[4] Tekuder sometime later converted to Islam[5] and changed his name to Ahmed, while Abd ul-Rahman would later rise in court and eventually be an ambassador to Mamluk Egypt.
Election and reign
[edit]He arrived to the Jaghatu valley near Maragha to attend the kurultai for the election of new Il-Khan after Abaqa's death in April 1282.[1] The main competition was between his nephew Arghun, his brother Möngke-Temür, and himself. He was supported by most of the nobles and emirs,[2] including Jalairs such as Shiktur Noyan,[6] Suqunjaq Noyan[4] and the Khongirads. He was elected on 6 May 1282 and enthroned on 21 June 1282 at Aladagh (Turkish: Aladağ, lit. 'Great Mountain'), east of lake Van. He adopted his Muslim name Ahmed as his regnal name.[7]
His first act was to clear Ata-Malik Juvayni of charges brought against him by Majd al-Mulk Yazdi, a vizier who accused him of embezzling state funds. Tekuder restored him to the government of Baghdad, while people lynched Majd al-Mulk for witchcraft.[8] He also appointed his younger half-brother, Qonqurtai, as viceroy of Anatolia the following month. However Arghun believed that the Juvayni brothers were responsible for his father's death by poisoning. He came to Baghdad to spend the winter of 1282-1283 and restarted the investigation of the accusations of embezzlement which may have caused Ata Malik's stroke on 5 March 1283.[7][8]
Rivalry with Arghun
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As Arghun's dissatisfaction grew, he left for Khorasan in spring to gain the allegiance of minor nobles and amirs. Tekuder on the other hand began to be suspicious of his half-brother Qonqurtai and Arghun's potential alliance. Qonqurtai was accused of conspiracy and was arrested by Tekuder's son-in-law, Alinaq Noyan - the viceroy of Georgia - on 17 January 1284, and was executed the next day. An army contingent was sent to Jazira, from where Gaykhatu and Baydu fled to Khorasan, to Arghun's encampment while several emirs such as Taghachar and Doladai were arrested.[4]
His next step was to send Alinaq with 15,000 men against Arghun, while he himself followed Alinaq on 26 April with his main army composed of Armenians and Georgians in addition to Mongols stationed in Mughan plain near Bilasuvar. Arghun prevailed against Alinaq in battle on 4 May, south of Qazvin, but nevertheless retreated to his lands in Khorasan. Ala ud-Daula Simnani, future Sufi saint of Kubrawiya order also fought in Arghun's army during this battle.[9] Arghun tried negotiate a truce, which Ahmad, against the advice of his councillors, refused. Another embassy sent by Arghun, this time led by his son Ghazan arrived at Tekuder's camp near Semnan on 31 May. The embassy was a success, as Ahmad accepted a truce on the condition that Arghun send his brother Gaykhatu as a hostage. Arghun agreed to the terms and sent his brother accompanied by two amirs, including Nawruz into the custody of Buqa, then the most senior of Tekuder's commanders, on 13[10] or 28 June.[7] Buqa in turn handed him over to Ahmad who put Gaykhatu in Tödai Khatun's encampment.
Despite this, Tekuder continued hostilities and continued to advance on Arghun. This caused Buqa to harbour resentment towards Tekuder and to grow more sympathetic to Arghun. On the other hand, he lost the favour of Tekuder who started to invest his trust in Aq Buqa, another Jalair general.[6]
Arghun's next step was to seek refuge in Kalat-e Naderi, a strong fortress on 7 July with 100 men. But he was forced to surrender to Alinaq four days later. Victorious, Tekuder left Arghun in Alinaq's custody while he himself left for Kalpush, where his main army was stationed. This was the opportunity Buqa was seeking - he broke into Alinaq's camp and set Arghun free, while killing Alinaq. Tekuder fled west and looted Buqa's encampment near Sultaniya in revenge. He continued on to his own pasturelands near Takht-i Suleyman on 17 July planning to escape to the Golden Horde via Derbent. However, Qaraunas, who had been sent by Buqa, soon caught up with and arrested Tekuder. He was turned over to Arghun on 26 July on the Ab-i Shur pasturelands, near Maragha.[7]
Trial and death
[edit]Tekuder was accused of the unjust execution of Qonqurtai, his half-brother in a trial presided over by Arghun. While Tekuder asked for mercy and clemency, Qonqurtai's Chinese (or Khitan) mother Ajuja demanded his execution. While not in favour of execution, the rebellions of his uncle Hulachu and cousin Jushkab in Hamadan forced him decide in favour of Qonqurtai's family. They had Ahmed executed on 10 August 1284 by breaking his back.
Relations with Mamluks
[edit]Shams al-Din Juvayni advised him to make peace with Mamluk Egypt since he was a Muslim sultan.[7] The first embassy headed by Qutb al-Din Shirazi left Aladagh for Egypt on 25 August 1282.[11] He expressed his aim to forge an alliance with Qalawun against the wishes of his own council in a letter. Qalawun sent a reply on 3 December 1282 urging Tekuder to release the Sultanate of Rum from vassalage as a fellow Muslim. Tekuder sent a second embassy, headed by his religious mentor Kamal al-Din Abd ul-Rahman to Egypt[11] from Tabriz in June 1283. However, this embassy was late as it arrived on 2 March 1284 and was granted audience on 26 August 1284, 16 days after Tekuder's death. Which led to the envoy's arrest and death.[3]
When Arghun received no reply, he declared war against Tekuder. Tekuder requested help from the Mamluk Sultan, but the Mamluks did not fully co-operate with him. Having a small and inferior army, Tekuder was defeated by Arghun's larger force, and he was eventually executed on August 10, 1284. Shams al-Din Juvayni was also arrested and executed by Buqa on 16 October 1284.
Family
[edit]Tekuder had eight consorts from different clans and several children with them:
- Senior wife - Töküz Khatun, a lady from the Khongirad tribe
- Kuchuk Khatun - married to Alinaq of Keraites
- Second wife - Armini Khatun, a lady from the Khongirad tribe
- Qaplanchi
- Arslanchi
- Könchek Khatun (executed by Abu Sa'id in 1319) - married to Irinjin of Keraites (nephew of Doquz Khatun)
- Chechak Khatun - married to Borachu, son of Durabai - Governor of Diyar Bakr
- Maynu Khatun - married to Jandan, son of Garai Baurchi of Tatars
- Baytegin Khatun, daughter of Husayn Agha of Jalairs;
- Tödegü Khatun, daughter of Musa Güregen of Khongirad (a son of Princess Tumelün)
- Saylun Khatun - married to Qaracha of Keraites
- El Qutlugh Khatun, daughter of Kingshu or Orghutaq (in both cases, a granddaughter of Jumghur, a son of Hulagu)[12]
- Tödai Khatun (m. 6 April 1284), widow of Abaqa Khan;
- Qurquchin Agachi
- Noghachi
- Qonqurchin Agachi
References
[edit]- ^ a b "AḤMAD TAKŪDĀR – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
- ^ a b Broadbridge, Anne F. (2018-07-18). Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108347990.010. ISBN 978-1-108-34799-0. S2CID 240360589.
- ^ a b Allouche, Adel (November 1990). "Tegüder's Ultimatum to Qalawun". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 22 (4): 437–446. doi:10.1017/S0020743800034358. ISSN 0020-7438. S2CID 159490971.
- ^ a b c Hope, Michael (22 September 2016). Power, politics, and tradition in the Mongol Empire and the Ilkhanate of Iran. Oxford. pp. 127–132. ISBN 978-0-19-108107-1. OCLC 959277759.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Steven Runciman. A History of the Crusades, volume 3: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades. p. 397.
- ^ a b Wing, Patrick (2016-01-18). Jalayirids: Dynastic State Formation in the Mongol Middle East. Edinburgh University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-4744-0226-2.
- ^ a b c d e The Cambridge history of Iran. Fisher, W. B. (William Bayne). Cambridge: University Press. 1968–1991. pp. 364–368. ISBN 0-521-06935-1. OCLC 745412.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ a b "JOVAYNI, ʿALĀʾ-AL-DIN – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
- ^ Elias, Jamal J. (1995-01-01). The Throne Carrier of God: The Life and Thought of 'Ala' ad-dawla as-Simnani. SUNY Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0-7914-2611-1.
- ^ Lane, George (2018-05-03). The Mongols in Iran: Qutb Al-Din Shirazi's Akhbar-i Moghulan. 60: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-38752-1.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ a b Komaroff, Linda (2006-10-05). Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan. BRILL. p. 286. ISBN 978-90-474-1857-3.
- ^ Broadbridge, Anne F. (January 2016). "Marriage, Family and Politics: The Ilkhanid-Oirat Connection". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 26 (1–2): 121–135. doi:10.1017/S1356186315000681. ISSN 1356-1863. S2CID 156130883.
Sources
[edit]
- Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 0-8160-4671-9.
- David Morgan, The Mongols
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Tekuder
View on GrokipediaBackground
Early Life and Family Origins
Teküder, bearing the Mongol name Tegüder (meaning "perfect"), was born circa 1247 as the seventh son of Hülegü Khan, founder of the Ilkhanate, and his wife Qūtūī Ḵātūn of the Khongirad tribe.[1] Hülegü himself was the fifth son of Tolui (a son of Genghis Khan) and Sorqoqtani Ḵātūn, a Kerait princess who played a key role in early Mongol imperial politics.[3] Qūtūī Ḵātūn, a Nestorian Christian, arranged for Teküder's baptism into that faith during his infancy, reflecting the prevalent Christianity among Mongol elites prior to widespread conversions.[4] [1] Hülegü fathered numerous sons—estimates range from 14 to 17—across multiple consorts, with Teküder among the younger ones who survived to prominence; his elder full or half-brother Abaqa succeeded their father as Ilkhan in 1265.[3] Details of Teküder's immediate childhood remain sparse in contemporary accounts, though he resided in Kurdistan during his early adulthood, away from the primary Ilkhanid centers, prior to Abaqa's death in 1282.[1] As a member of the Borjigin clan, Teküder's lineage tied him directly to the imperial Mongol hierarchy, positioning him within the ulus of Persia despite his peripheral role in Hülegü's western campaigns that began in 1253.[3]Conversion to Islam
Tegüder, a son of Hülegü Khan and his principal wife Qutui Khatun, was born around 1247 and initially bore the Mongol name meaning "perfect." His conversion to Islam, upon which he adopted the name Sulṭān Aḥmad, occurred prior to his accession as Ilkhan in 1282, though the exact date and immediate circumstances are not documented in surviving primary sources such as the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh of Rašīd al-Dīn.[1] The shaykh Kamāl al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, a religious mentor possibly introduced through family connections, played a pivotal role in guiding Tegüder toward Islam, reflecting broader Sufi influences at the Ilkhanid court amid interactions with Muslim subjects and scholars.[5] This shift marked Tegüder as the first Ilkhan to publicly embrace the faith, diverging from the shamanist-Buddhist leanings of his father and the Christian sympathies evident in parts of the royal family, including baptisms among some Mongol elites.[6] Upon conversion, he demonstrated fervent adherence, later styling himself as sultan and seeking alignment with Muslim polities like the Mamluks.[1]Rise to Power
Succession Following Abaqa Khan
Abaqa Khan died in Dhu'l-Hijja 680 AH (April 1282) following a period of illness.[1] As the senior surviving son of Hulagu Khan, Ahmad Tekuder—then residing in Kurdistan—traveled to the funeral obsequies held at Jaghatu, positioning himself as the natural claimant within the Borjigin family lineage.[1] The kurultai, or assembly of Mongol nobles, convened at Ala Tagh (near Lake Van) and elected Tekuder as Il-Khan on 26 Muharram 681 AH (6 May 1282), affirming his precedence over younger branches of the family, including Abaqa's son Arghun.[1] This selection reflected traditional Mongol succession practices favoring seniority among Hulagu's direct male descendants, though Tekuder's prior conversion to Islam and adoption of the name Ahmad may have garnered additional support from Persian and Muslim elements within the administration.[1] Tekuder was formally enthroned on 13 Rabi' I 681 AH (21 June 1282), marking the transition to his brief rule as the first Muslim Il-Khan, during which he adopted the title Sultan Ahmad Tekuder.[1] Arghun, despite his status as Abaqa's designated heir in some accounts, acquiesced to the kurultai's decision, averting immediate fratricidal conflict but sowing seeds of later rivalry.[7] The process underscored tensions between established Mongol customs and emerging Islamic influences in the Ilkhanate's power dynamics.[1]Reign (1282–1284)
Domestic Administration and Policies
Upon his accession on 6 May 1282, Teküder prioritized stabilizing the administration by reinstating influential Muslim officials previously out of favor. He cleared the Juvayni brothers of embezzlement charges dating to Abaqa Khan's reign and appointed Shams al-Din Juvayni as ṣāḥeb-dīvān (chief administrator of finances and state affairs) while assigning ʿAlāʾ-al-dīn Juvayni to governorship of Baghdad.[1] These moves aimed to leverage the Juvaynis' administrative expertise amid Teküder's push for Islamic integration in governance, though they drew suspicion from factions aligned with Arghun, who viewed the appointments as favoritism toward Persian Muslim elites.[1] To balance Mongol noble interests, Teküder initially consulted his mother Qūtūī Ḵātūn and amir Asīq for counsel before delegating authority to Shams al-Din Juvayni and Sufi shaykh Kamāl-al-dīn ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān.[1] In Rabīʿ II 681 AH (July 1282), he appointed Qongūrtāi, a key Mongol amir, as viceroy of Rūm to secure loyalty in Anatolia.[1] His administration showed preference for Muslim mystics (Sufis) in advisory roles over traditional Mongol shamans, fostering resentment among the Chinggisid aristocracy who perceived it as undermining nomadic customs.[8] No comprehensive fiscal reforms occurred under Teküder; policies emphasized short-term appeasement rather than systemic change, with revenue administration continuing under the reinstated Juvaynis.[1] Internal tensions escalated as Arghun rallied opposition in Khorasan, leading to Qongūrtāi's arrest and execution on 26 Shawwāl 682 AH (17 January 1284) for alleged conspiracy.[1] This reflected broader administrative challenges: Teküder's efforts to align the Ilkhanate with Islamic norms clashed with the military elite's adherence to Mongol traditions, contributing to governance instability during his 26-month rule.[1]Religious Reforms and Mongol Resistance
Upon his enthronement on 21 June 1282, Tekuder, who had converted to Islam prior to his accession and adopted the regnal name Sultan Ahmad, pursued policies that favored Muslim integration into the Ilkhanate's administration. He reinstated Shams al-Dīn Muḥammad al-Juwaynī, a prominent Muslim scholar and administrator, as chief vizier, displacing traditional Mongol figures and restoring Muslim influence in key posts previously diminished under Abaqa Khan.[1] These appointments reflected Tekuder's intent to align the realm more closely with Islamic governance, including expressions of commitment to implementing sharia law as conveyed in diplomatic correspondence with the Mamluk Sultan Qalāwūn in August 1282.[10] Despite these reforms, Tekuder refrained from enforcing mass conversions or wholesale imposition of Islamic law on the diverse populace, including Mongol elites who predominantly adhered to shamanism, Buddhism, or Nestorian Christianity. His pro-Islamic orientation, however, provoked significant opposition from traditionalist Mongol nobility, who perceived it as a betrayal of the Yasa—the customary Mongol legal code—and a threat to their privileged status. Nobles such as Arghūn Khan, Tekuder's nephew and a staunch defender of Mongol traditions, openly protested the sultan's religious favoritism, viewing it as eroding the empire's foundational shamanistic and pluralistic ethos.[1][11] This resistance manifested in conspiracies and overt challenges; Tekuder executed the Mongol commander Qongortai on 17 January 1284 for alleged plotting with Arghūn, but such measures failed to quell the unrest. Arghūn's faction accused Tekuder of transgressing Mongol law through his Islamic commitments, mobilizing military support from pagan and Christian Mongol elements wary of Islamization's potential to subordinate their customs. The culmination of this Mongol backlash was Arghūn's rebellion in early 1284, which directly precipitated Tekuder's deposition and execution on 10 August 1284, effectively halting his religious initiatives.[1][6]Foreign Diplomacy
Upon his accession in May 1282, Tekuder, adopting the Muslim name Sultan Ahmad, pursued a policy of reconciliation with the Mamluk Sultanate, reversing the Ilkhanate's prior aggressive stance and alliances with European powers against Egypt. Influenced by his vizier Shams al-Din Juvayni, he dispatched an embassy to Cairo in Jumada I 681 AH (August 1282), proposing peace on the basis of shared Islamic faith.[2][6] The Mamluk response was cautious, reflecting skepticism toward the Ilkhanate's sudden overture amid ongoing hostilities and internal Mongol divisions; no formal alliance materialized, though initial exchanges indicated parity rather than subordination.[12] As rebellion led by his nephew Arghun escalated in 1284, Tekuder again appealed to the Mamluks for military aid against the challenger, but received limited cooperation, contributing to his forces' defeat due to inferior numbers and preparation.[6] This diplomatic pivot alienated traditional Mongol elites and severed potential ties with the Franks, prioritizing Islamic solidarity over expansionist campaigns, though it yielded no enduring gains before his overthrow.[13]Conflict with Arghun
Opposition to Tekuder's religious conversion and diplomatic overtures toward the Mamluk Sultanate, perceived as a departure from Mongol imperial traditions favoring religious pluralism and military expansionism, fueled discontent among Ilkhanate nobles and military leaders. Arghun, son of the preceding ruler Abaqa Khan, emerged as the primary challenger, leveraging his lineage and rallying support in Khorasan during early 1284.[14] Tekuder responded by arresting several of Arghun's allies, including the execution of his half-brother Qonqurtai, which intensified the rift.[6] Arghun initially faced setbacks, including a brief capture, but was liberated by Buqa, Tekuder's foster brother and a key commander who defected to his cause. Buqa's support proved pivotal, enabling Arghun to mobilize forces against the capital. Tekuder dispatched an army under Alinaq, his son-in-law and governor of Georgia, which clashed with Arghun's troops south of Qazvin around May 1284; Arghun emerged victorious in this engagement.[2] Despite this, Arghun temporarily withdrew to consolidate in Khorasan before advancing westward. The decisive confrontation occurred on July 26, 1284, at the Ab-i Shur pasturelands near Maragha, where Tekuder's assembled forces, numbering in the tens of thousands, confronted Arghun's army. Rather than engaging, Tekuder's troops dispersed upon sighting Arghun's banners, reflecting widespread erosion of loyalty to the sultan amid accusations of favoritism toward Muslim elements over traditional Mongol constituencies. Tekuder fled southward toward Baghdad in a bid for Mamluk asylum, but Buqa intercepted him en route.[14] Captured near Abshor (modern Maragheh region), Tekuder was deposed and executed on August 10, 1284, by strangulation or bloodletting, in line with Mongol customs for royal offenders involving ritual slaughter of kin. Arghun was proclaimed Ilkhan the next day, August 11, marking the swift resolution of the succession crisis.[14] [6] Historical accounts, drawing from chroniclers like Rashid al-Din, attribute the conflict's outcome to Tekuder's alienation of the nomadic Mongol elite through his Islamization efforts, though primary Persian sources commissioned under later Ilkhans may reflect retrospective biases favoring Arghun's restoration of pre-Islamic policies.[14]Downfall and Execution
Rebellion and Trial
Arghun, son of the previous Ilkhan Abaqa, opposed Ahmad Tegüder's pro-Islamic policies and favoritism toward Muslim officials, prompting him to rally support among Mongol nobles in Khorasan during late 1283.[1] By early 1284, Arghun mobilized an army and advanced westward against Tegüder's forces, marking the onset of open rebellion.[1] On 16 Safar 683 AH (4 May 1284 CE), Arghun decisively defeated Tegüder's commander Alināq at Āq-Khwāja near Qazvin, shattering the loyalty of many in Tegüder's camp.[1] As Arghun pressed toward the Ilkhanid capital, defections mounted, including from key figures like the commander Būqā, who had initially supported Tegüder but shifted allegiance. Tegüder attempted to negotiate but found his position untenable, leading to his surrender on 14 Rabiʿ II 683 AH (30 June 1284 CE).[1] Tegüder was subsequently arrested and brought before Arghun for judgment. In the ensuing proceedings, he faced accusations of unjustly executing his half-brother Qonqurtai, who had been put to death earlier under suspicious circumstances, possibly by trampling as punishment for alleged disloyalty.[15] Despite pleas for clemency, invoking Mongol traditions of mercy for kin, Tegüder was convicted and executed on 26 Jumada I 683 AH (10 August 1284 CE) by the same method—having his back broken or being trampled—adhering to customary Mongol penal practices for royals, as detailed in Rashid al-Din's chronicles.[1][15] This swift overthrow ended Tegüder's brief reign and restored a more traditional Mongol orientation under Arghun.[1]Death and Immediate Aftermath
![Depiction of the war between Arghun Khan and Sultan Ahmad][float-right] Following his military defeat, Tekuder was captured by forces loyal to Arghun and subjected to trial. He was executed on August 10, 1284, through the breaking of his back, a customary method to preserve royal blood by avoiding direct bloodshed.[6][2] The execution served as retribution for Tekuder's prior killing of his half-brother Qonqurtai, with Tekuder handed over to Qonqurtai's kin for the act.[6] On the day following Tekuder's death, Arghun was proclaimed the new Ilkhan, securing his succession and shifting the Ilkhanate's leadership back toward traditional Mongol elites opposed to Tekuder's pro-Islamic policies.[15]Legacy and Historical Assessment
Impact on Ilkhanate Islamization
Tegüder's conversion to Islam prior to his accession in June 1282 represented the first instance of an Ilkhan ruler publicly embracing the faith, adopting the regnal name Sultan Ahmad and drawing influence from Sufi figures such as Shaykh ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, whom he honored as a spiritual father.[16][17] During his brief reign until August 1284, he pursued policies aimed at elevating Islam's status, including the appointment of Muslim viziers and judges, advocacy for ruling in accordance with the sharīʿa, and patronage of Sufi orders through participation in rituals like samāʿ sessions.[16][17] These measures sought to integrate Islamic legal frameworks alongside traditional Mongol yasa, while maintaining a degree of religious tolerance toward Christians, Buddhists, and Tengriists, reflecting the syncretic environment of the Ilkhanate court.[16] Despite these initiatives, Tegüder's religious reforms encountered fierce opposition from the predominantly non-Muslim Mongol nobility, who viewed the prioritization of sharīʿa over yasa as a threat to their authority and cultural norms.[16] His favoritism toward Muslim officials and Sufi intermediaries alienated key Chinggisid princes and amirs, contributing to a rebellion led by his nephew Arghun, who rallied support by framing Tegüder's Islam as a betrayal of Mongol traditions.[16][17] This resistance underscored the incomplete Islamization of the ruling elite, where conversions remained sporadic and often confined to lower strata or peripheral nomads, with Sufi networks playing a facilitative but not transformative role during his tenure.[17] The short duration of Tegüder's rule limited the depth of institutional changes, preventing widespread adoption of Islamic governance and failing to shift the Ilkhanate's military and administrative core away from its Buddhist and shamanist leanings.[16] Nonetheless, his example as a Muslim khan demonstrated the political viability of such a stance for legitimizing rule among Persian and Turkish Muslim subjects, fostering gradual acculturation that evidenced itself in the increasing prevalence of Muslim-named amirs by the 1290s.[17] This paved a conceptual path for Ghāzān Khān's more decisive Islamization in 1295, which built upon Sufi-mediated precedents established under Tegüder without replicating the immediate backlash.[18][17]Evaluations of Achievements and Failures
Tegüder's short reign (1282–1284) is assessed by historians as a pivotal but ultimately unsuccessful attempt to integrate Islam into the Ilkhanate's governance, marking the first instance of a ruling Ilkhan's conversion to the faith. Influenced by Sufi shaykhs such as Shaykh Zayn al-Din and 'Abd al-Rahman, he adopted the name Ahmad and sought to align state policies with Islamic norms, including diplomatic overtures to Muslim powers.[19] This religious shift, while sincere, alienated the predominantly non-Muslim Mongol nobility, who viewed it as a threat to traditional shamanist and multi-confessional practices that had sustained Ilkhanid stability under predecessors like Abaqa Khan.[20] A key achievement lay in foreign diplomacy, particularly his initiative to end hostilities with the Mamluk Sultanate. In 1282, Tegüder dispatched letters to Sultan Qalawun, proposing peace, mutual recognition as sovereigns, and a potential alliance, thereby averting immediate invasions and allowing the Ilkhanate to redirect resources inward.[21] This pragmatic realignment temporarily stabilized the Syrian frontier, contrasting with the ongoing Mongol-Mamluk wars of prior decades, and demonstrated an early recognition of shared Muslim interests over perpetual conquest.[22] However, these gains were overshadowed by profound failures in domestic consolidation. Tegüder's emphasis on Islamization, including favoritism toward Muslim administrators and pressure on non-Muslims, eroded support among core Mongol military elites, who prioritized yasa (Mongol customary law) over sharia.[19] This miscalculation triggered Arghun's rebellion in 1284, culminating in Tegüder's defeat, trial for violating Mongol traditions, and execution on August 10, 1284, after just over two years in power.[20] Scholars attribute this rapid downfall to his failure to secure the noyans' loyalty before enacting reforms, highlighting a causal disconnect between personal piety and political viability in a conquest elite reliant on religious tolerance for cohesion.[23] Overall, Tegüder's legacy in evaluations underscores the risks of premature cultural transformation in nomadic empires: his diplomatic successes offered a model later refined by Ghazan Khan, but the internal fractures he induced delayed stable Islamization and exposed the Ilkhanate's vulnerability to factional strife.[24] While preventing overt religious persecution during his rule, the ensuing civil conflict underscored the limits of top-down conversion without broader elite buy-in.[24]Family and Descendants
Teküder, also known as Sulṭān Aḥmad, was the seventh son of Hülegü Khan, founder of the Ilkhanate, and his Kerait wife Qutūī Khātūn.[1][14] Born around 1247 in Mongolia, he was among several sons of Hülegü, including his elder brother Abaqa, who ruled as Ilkhan from 1265 to 1282, and a younger brother Qongurtai, appointed viceroy of Rūm during Teküder's reign.[1] As a youth, Teküder was baptized into Nestorian Christianity, receiving the name Nicholas, before later converting to Islam.[14][1] Limited records exist on Teküder's immediate family beyond his parents and siblings. He had at least one daughter, whose marriage to the Georgian commander Alīnāq Noyan tied him to regional military elites.[1] No sons are prominently documented in primary sources, and following Teküder's overthrow and execution on 10 August 1284, his biological descendants did not succeed to the Ilkhanate throne, which passed to his nephew Arghun, son of Abaqa.[1][14] His foster son Buqa assisted Arghun in the coup but held no dynastic claim.[16]References
- https://www.[researchgate](/page/ResearchGate).net/publication/314600928_Il-Khanate_Empire