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A catholicos (plural: catholicoi) is the head of certain churches in some Eastern Christian traditions. The title implies autocephaly and, in some cases, it is the title of the head of an autonomous church. The word comes from ancient Greek καθολικός (pl. καθολικοί), derived from καθ' ὅλου (kath'olou, "generally") from κατά (kata, "down") and ὅλος (holos, "whole"), meaning "concerning the whole, universal, general"; it originally designated a financial or civil office in the Roman Empire.[1]

The Church of the East, some Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, and Eastern Catholic churches historically use this title;[2] for example the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Georgian Orthodox Church. In the Church of the East, the title was given to the church's head, the patriarch of the Church of the East; it is still used in two successor churches, the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East, the heads of which are known as catholicos-patriarchs. In the Armenian Church there are two catholicoi: the supreme catholicos of Ejmiadzin and the catholicos of Cilicia. The title catholicos-patriarchs is also used by the primate of the Armenian Catholic Church.[3] In India, an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox Church and the regional head of Jacobite Syrian Christian Church (an autonomous Church within Syriac Orthodox Church) use this title. The first is the catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan, and the latter the catholicos of India, but unequally same[clarify] according to the constitution of the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church.

Origin of the title

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The earliest ecclesiastical use of the title catholicos was by the Bishop of Etchmiadzin, head of the Armenian Apostolic Church, in the 4th century[1] while still under the Patriarchate of Antioch.[4] Among the Armenians, catholicos was originally a simple title for the principal bishop of the country; he was subordinate to the See of Caesarea in Cappadocia.[4]

Sometime later, it was adopted by the Grand metropolitans of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in Persia, who became the designated heads of the Church of the East. The first claim that the bishop of Selucia-Ctesiphon was superior to the other bishoprics and had (using a later term) patriarchal rights was made by Patriarch Papa bar Aggai (c. 317 – c. 329). In the 5th century this claim was strengthened and Isaac (or Ishaq, 399 – c. 410), who organized the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, used the title of bishop of Selucia-Ctesiphon, Catholicos and Head over the bishops of all the Orient.[5] This line of Catholicos founded the Church of the East and the development of the East Syriac Rite.

At the beginning of the fourth century, Albania and Georgia (Iberia) were converted to Christianity, and the principal bishop of each of these countries bore the title of catholicos, although neither of them was autocephalous. They followed the Armenians in rejecting the Council of Chalcedon. At the end of the sixth or beginning of the seventh century, the Georgian catholicos asserted his independence and accepted Eastern Orthodoxy. Henceforward the Georgian Church underwent the same evolutions as the Greek. In 1783 Georgia was forced to abolish the office of its catholicos, and place itself under the Most Holy Synod of Russia, to which country it was united politically in 1801. The Albanian catholicos remained loyal to the Armenian Church, with the exception of a brief schism towards the end of the sixth century. Shortly afterwards, Albania was assimilated partly with Armenia and partly with Georgia. There is no mention of any catholicos in Albania after the seventh century. It is asserted by some that the head of the Abyssinian Church, the abuna, also bears the title of catholicos, but, although this name may have been applied to him by analogy, there is, to our[who?] knowledge, no authority for asserting that this title is used by the Abyssinian Church itself.[4]

Catholicos in various churches

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Autocephalous churches of East

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The following are autocephalous churches of East Syriac Rite that claim succession to the Catholicos of the East of Selucia-Ctesiphon of the Church of the East. Referred to as "Nestorianism" in Western texts, the term Nestorian was formally renounced in 1976 by Mar Dinkha IV.[citation needed]

Assyrian Church of the East

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Main article: Assyrian Church of the East

As of September 13, 2021, Awa III is the catholicos-patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East. One of the oldest Christian churches, it is a modern successor of the historical Church of the East. It traces its origins to the See of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in central Mesopotamia, which tradition holds was founded by Thomas the Apostle as well as Mari of Edessa and Addai of Edessa in the year 33 as asserted in the Doctrine of Addai.

It is one of the three churches of the East that hold themselves distinct from Oriental and Eastern Orthodoxy. It is often called the Chaldean Syrian Church in India. The church declares that no other church has suffered as many martyrdoms as the Assyrian Church of the East.[citation needed]

The founders of Assyrian theology were Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia, who taught at Antioch. The normative Christology of the Assyrian church was written by Babai the Great (551–628) and is distinct from the accusations directed toward Nestorius. Babay's main Christological work is called the Book of the Union and in it, he teaches that the two qnome (essences or hypostases) are unmingled but everlastingly united in the parsopa or hypostatic union.[citation needed]

Ancient Church of the East

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As of February 20, 1972, Addai II is the catholicos of the Ancient Church of the East, which split from the Assyrian Church of the East in the 1960s.

Eastern Orthodox Church

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Georgian Orthodox Church

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The title of catholicos is also used in the Georgian Church, whose head carries the title Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia.

Oriental Orthodox Churches

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Armenian Apostolic Church

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In the Armenian Church there are two catholicoi: the supreme catholicos of Etchmiadzin and the catholicos of Cilicia. The Catholicos of Etchmiadzin presides over the Supreme Spiritual Council of the Armenian Apostolic Church and is the head of the world's 7 million Armenian Apostolic Christians. The primacy of honour of the Catholicosate of Etchmiadzin has always been recognized by the Catholicosate of Cilicia.

Until the 19th century, there were also two other high-ranking Armenian clergymen who held the title of catholicos: the Catholicos of Albania (also known as the Catholicos of Gandzasar) and the Catholicos of Aghtamar.[7]

Syriac Orthodox Church

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In the seventh century, the Syriac Orthodox Christians who lived in Persia began using the title for its catholicos / maphrian, who was originally the head of the Syriac Orthodox Christian community in Persia. This office ranked second in the Syriac Orthodox church hierarchy after the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, until it was abolished in 1860 and reinstated in the India of the East on 1964.

Today, the title is known as Catholicos / Maphrian of India or Catholicos of India of the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church headquartered at Puthencruz near Kochi in Kerala is an integral branch of Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch headed by Ignatius Aphrem II Patriarch of Antioch. The current catholicos of the church is Baselios Joseph I.

Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church

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According to the constitution of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (Indian Orthodox Church) the head or primate bears the title Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan. The church is based at Devalokam near Kottayam in Kerala. As of 2021, the current head is Baselios Marthoma Mathews III. He is currently the 9th catholicos of the East since it was relocated to India and 92nd Primate on the Apostolic throne of Saint Thomas.[8]

Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

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In 1959, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria granted autocephaly to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Abuna Basilios was consecrated the first patriarch-catholicos of the Ethiopian Church by the Coptic Pope Cyril VI at St. Mark's Cathedral in Cairo on 28 June 1959. The title is "Patriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Ichege of the See of St. Tekle Haymanot, Archbishop of Axum".

Catholic Church

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Some Eastern Catholic Churches use the title "Catholicos".

Armenian Catholic Church

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The leader of the Armenian Catholic Church (of Armenian Rite), in full communion with the Pope, uses the title "Catholicos".[9]

As of March 14, 2022, Raphaël Bedros XXI Minassian is the catholicos-patriarch of the Armenian Catholic Church. His full title is officially "Catholicos-Patriarch of the House of Cilicia".[10]

Chaldean Catholic Church

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The Chaldean Catholic Church (of East Syriac Rite) is in full communion with the Pope. Although derived from the historical Church of the East, whose leader was initially styled Major Metropolitan and Catholicos and later Patriarch (see Church of the East#Organisation and structure), it seems to use only the title of "Patriarch".[10]

As of February 1, 2013, Louis Raphaël I Sako is the Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans.[11] [12]

Syro-Malankara Catholic Church

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The Syro-Malankara Catholic Church of West Syriac Rite in full communion with the Pope is a major archiepiscopal church, a rank granted to the Eastern Catholic Church by Pope John Paul II on 10 February 2005.[13] Accordingly it is headed by Major Archbishop Moran Mor Cardinal Baselios Cleemis Catholica Bava since 2007.[14][15]

He is referred to as catholicos of the Syro Malankara Catholic Church.[16][17] In this context, the use of the title "Catholicos" indicates parity between him and his peers in the autocephalous Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and in the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, which remains part of the Syriac Orthodox Church.[16]

References

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Sources

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Catholicos

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A catholicos (plural: catholicoi) is an title denoting the supreme or head of certain autocephalous churches within Eastern Christian traditions, equivalent in rank to a and signifying "universal" or "general" authority over the faithful, derived from the term katholikos meaning "universal " or "general head." The role encompasses spiritual leadership, administrative oversight of and dioceses, convocation of synods, and preservation of doctrinal, liturgical, and specific to the church's rite, often implying jurisdictional from other patriarchates. The title originated in the early within the (also known as the Assyrian or Nestorian Church), where bishops in the Persian Empire organized under a central leader at Seleucia-Ctesiphon around 300 AD, with Papa bar Aggai recognized as the first catholicos (c. 285–326 AD) and the title formalized at the Synod of in 410 AD to assert autonomy amid Roman-Persian tensions. By the Synod of 424 AD, the catholicos was elevated to patriarchal status, expanding influence across Asia, including missions to , , and , though the church faced schisms and declined due to Mongol invasions and later persecutions. In the , one of the oldest Christian communities founded by Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddaeus in the , the title has been held by its supreme leader since the 4th century, beginning with St. Gregory the Illuminator's successors like St. Vrtanes I (333–341 AD), and was centralized at Etchmiadzin in 1441 AD following a with the Cilician catholicosate, which continues as a co-equal see today. The , currently , oversees approximately 6–9 million faithful worldwide, rejecting the (451 AD) and adhering to miaphysite Christology and playing a pivotal role in Armenian national identity amid historical genocides and diasporas. The title also appears in Oriental Orthodox traditions, such as the Syriac Orthodox Church, where it designates the Maphrian (or Catholicos) of the East, a deputy to the Patriarch of Antioch established in the 7th century at Tagrit to govern Persian dioceses, later revived in India as the Catholicos of India for the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church. In the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, an autocephalous body tracing to St. Thomas Christians, the Catholicos of the East was instituted in 1912 at Kottayam to affirm independence from Antioch, with Baselios Paulos I as the first, now leading over 2 million members through eight successors who uphold East Syriac rites adapted to West Syriac liturgy post-17th-century reforms. Catholicoi across Eastern Christian traditions, including East Syriac, Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, and , foster ecumenical dialogues with other Christian denominations while navigating modern challenges like , migration, and geopolitical conflicts in the and beyond.

Etymology and Historical Origins

Etymology

The term catholicos derives from the ancient Greek adjective katholikos (καθολικός), signifying "universal," "general," or "pertaining to the whole." This word breaks down etymologically from kata (κατά), meaning "according to" or "throughout," combined with holos (ὅλος), denoting "whole" or "entire." In its initial non-ecclesiastical application during the 3rd and 4th centuries, catholicos served as a Roman civil administrative for officials responsible for overseeing finances and in specific provinces, exercising broad over defined territories. These administrators handled fiscal matters and regional administration, reflecting the term's connotation of comprehensive . By the early , the title evolved into a Christian designation, applied to church leaders to underscore the universal scope of their oversight and the wholeness of the under their guidance. This adaptation highlighted the term's emphasis on generality and inclusivity in spiritual leadership.

Historical Origins

The title of catholicos first appeared in usage in the early nearly contemporaneously in the Armenian Church and the . In the , St. established the catholicosate at (modern Etchmiadzin) around 302 AD, shortly after King Tiridates III declared the in 301 AD. , ordained as the first catholicos, organized the church by appointing bishops to various principalities, though the see initially remained subordinate to the of Antioch, reflecting broader dependencies on established Syrian and Cappadocian centers during Armenia's early . In the , the title was adopted in the late 3rd or early by the bishops of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, the Persian imperial capital, marking a pivotal step in centralizing authority amid growing separation from western Christian structures. Papa bar Aggai, bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon from approximately 310 to 329 AD, was the first to claim the title of Catholicos of the East, organizing the Persian bishops into a structured episcopal system that emphasized his primacy. This was formalized under his successor (399–c. 410 AD), who convened the Synod of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 410 AD, adopting the and securing imperial Persian recognition for the Catholicos as the supreme head of , free from external interference. The adoption of the Catholicos title played a crucial role in asserting ecclesiastical independence from Roman and Byzantine patriarchates during the Christological controversies of the , particularly as tensions escalated around the in 431 AD. The , influenced by Antiochene theology and the teachings of figures like , rejected the council's condemnation of and of Alexandria's miaphysite emphases, instead affirming a dyophysite through synods like that of Markabta in 424 AD, which declared the of the Seleucia-Ctesiphon see without subordination to Antioch or . This jurisdictional autonomy, reinforced by Sassanian Persian support, allowed the to develop distinctively amid persecutions and theological divides.

Significance of the Title

Relation to Other Episcopal Titles

The title of Catholicos, derived from the Greek katholikos meaning "universal," signifies a bishop with extensive jurisdiction over a broad, often dispersed Christian community, emphasizing spiritual universality rather than localized rule. In contrast, the title Patriarch originates from the Greek patēr (father) and archē (rule or origin), typically denoting a "father-ruler" who exercises metropolitan oversight and patriarchal authority within a defined ecclesiastical province or autocephalous church. This distinction highlights how Catholicos often underscores a role in unifying scattered faithful, particularly in regions outside the Byzantine Empire's direct influence, while Patriarch implies hierarchical governance akin to that of the ancient apostolic sees. Historically, the titles overlapped significantly, with combined forms like Catholicos-Patriarch emerging in the 5th and 6th centuries to reconcile administrative needs amid schisms and political pressures. In the , the bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon adopted Catholicos around 410 and declared independence from the in 424, elevated to patriarchal status at the of 424 AD, with the combined title Catholicos-Patriarch used thereafter to assert full . Similarly, in the Armenian Church, the has held the title of Catholicos since the , considered equivalent to a in asserting independence from Byzantine oversight, particularly following the rejection of the in 451 AD. These hybrid titles arose to affirm legitimacy and equality without subordinating to external patriarchates, particularly in Persian and Armenian contexts during the 4th-5th centuries. In terms of precedence, a Catholicos typically holds rank equivalent to a Patriarch, denoting full autocephaly and jurisdictional independence, but without the historical subordination to the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople that characterizes some Eastern Orthodox patriarchates. This equivalence is evident in non-Chalcedonian traditions, where ancient catholicates in Persia, Armenia, and Georgia—established before the 5th century—functioned as independent heads of their churches, on par with the five major patriarchates (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem). The Catholicos title thus served to claim parity in dignity and authority, especially for sees outside the pentarchy's framework. During the medieval period, title inflation became common among Eastern sees, with Catholicos increasingly used to assert equality with Patriarchs amid rival claims and diaspora growth. For instance, multiple lines in the Syriac and Armenian traditions adopted the title to legitimize their , avoiding perceived inferiority to or , and fostering a sense of collegial precedence among non-aligned churches. This usage reinforced the Catholicos as a marker of universal pastoral responsibility, distinct yet parallel to patriarchal primacy.

Jurisdictional and Theological Implications

The title of Catholicos denotes jurisdictional for the heads of autocephalous churches within Eastern Christian traditions, enabling independent governance over , episcopal appointments, and relations with other churches, while maintaining communion through shared doctrinal foundations. In practice, this allows Catholicoi to adapt structures to local contexts without subordination to a central , distinguishing the role from more centralized models like the Roman papacy. For instance, the Catholicos of Etchmiadzin exercises over Armenian communities worldwide, including administrative decisions for dioceses in diverse regions. Theologically, the Catholicos embodies , serving as a symbol of ecclesiastical wholeness rooted in the church's Christological heritage—miaphysite for Oriental Orthodox traditions, emphasizing the unified divine-human nature of Christ, or dyophysite for the , affirming two distinct yet inseparable natures. This title underscores sacramental validity across communions, where the Catholicos ensures the continuity of and doctrinal fidelity, fostering a sense of universal without implying . The role parallels that of a in signifying collegial leadership among bishops, yet emphasizes regional in preserving theological distinctives. In modern , Catholicoi have played pivotal roles in dialogues promoting reconciliation, such as the 1990s Pro Oriente consultations between Oriental Orthodox leaders and the Roman Catholic Church, which produced christological agreements affirming shared faith in the Incarnate Word and advanced mutual recognition of sacraments. These meetings, involving Catholicoi from Armenian, Syriac, Coptic, and other churches, addressed historical divisions from the while recommending joint commissions for fuller unity. More recently, the 2025 Vatican encounter between Pope Leo XIV and Catholicos-Patriarch Mar Awa III of the highlighted as a path to communion, urging shared witness amid Middle Eastern persecutions and modern challenges like displacement. The title's adaptability has proven essential in globalized contexts, particularly since the , as Catholicoi have extended oversight to migrant and communities through the establishment of new dioceses outside traditional heartlands. This evolution addresses the needs of scattered populations, such as Assyrian and Syriac refugees, by coordinating , cultural preservation, and inter-church collaboration in host countries. In the Armenian case, the Catholicosate has managed expanding jurisdictions, including in and the , to sustain communal identity amid .

Usage in the Church of the East Tradition

Assyrian Church of the East

In the , the title of Catholicos was formalized at the of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 410 AD, elevating the bishop of that see to the position of supreme head of the East Syrian Rite and affirming the church's independence from the metropolitan of Antioch. This development, occurring amid the early 5th-century Persian context, established the Catholicos as the central authority for a rite characterized by its Syriac liturgical traditions and dyophysite . Under successive Catholicos-Patriarchs, the church pursued extensive activities, solidifying ties with Christian communities in —rooted in the ancient St. Thomas tradition—and extending influence across , with organized missions reaching by the mid-7th century as evidenced by imperial edicts and steles. A pivotal leader in modern times was Mar Dinkha IV, who served as Catholicos-Patriarch from 1976 until his death in 2015. Facing restrictions and persecution in , he relocated the patriarchal see to in 1980 to better serve the growing in and facilitate administrative continuity. The current Catholicos-Patriarch, Mar Awa III, was elected by the on September 8, 2021, and enthroned on September 13, 2021, at St. John the Baptist Cathedral in , , where the see had been reestablished in 2015 under his predecessor. He leads a global community of approximately 400,000 faithful, with significant concentrations in , , , , and diaspora populations in the United States, , and . Distinct to the Assyrian tradition is its adherence to the East Syriac liturgy, centered on the ancient Anaphora of Addai and Mari, celebrated primarily in Classical Syriac and preserving pre-Chalcedonian elements adapted to Nestorian theology. The church's missionary legacy, which once supported over 200 dioceses across during its medieval zenith, continues to inform its identity as an evangelizing body rooted in apostolic origins. In October 2025, Mar Awa III engaged in ecumenical meetings with the Vatican, including an audience with Pope Leo XIV and discussions within the Joint Commission for Theological Dialogue, focusing on shared Assyrian heritage and liturgical commonalities to advance unity.

Ancient Church of the East

The formed in 1968 through a from the , driven by opposition to the latter's adoption of the New Calendar and related liturgical reforms introduced in 1964. The breakaway group, supported by the Iraqi government and initially led by Mar Thoma Darmo, rejected these changes as undue Western influences and retained the title of Catholicos-Patriarch to affirm its direct continuity with the ancient patriarchal traditions of the , rooted in the see of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. This highlighted the faction's commitment to preserving the church's historical independence from Byzantine and Roman influences, sharing origins with the broader tradition in 5th-century Persia. After Mar Thoma Darmo's death in 1969, Mar Addai II Giwargis was elected and enthroned as Catholicos-Patriarch in 1972, establishing his seat in and guiding the church with an emphasis on unwavering fidelity to the 5th-century synods, such as those at Seleucia-Ctesiphon, which upheld the dyophysite central to the East Syriac heritage. Under his leadership until his death in 2022, the church maintained its distinct identity amid regional upheavals, with the Catholicos-Patriarch serving as the unifying symbol of doctrinal and liturgical orthodoxy. Following his passing, Mar Gewargis III Younan was elected as Catholicos-Patriarch in November 2022 and enthroned in June 2023 at St. Mary's Cathedral in . The today consists of a modest community of about 70,000 faithful, concentrated primarily in and , with smaller dioceses in , , and ; the title Catholicos-Patriarch continues to underscore its principled stance against modern liturgical innovations. Distinctively, it adheres to the traditional for its liturgical observances and has remained largely apart from wider ecumenical initiatives, though occasional dialogues—such as those facilitated by Pro Oriente since 1994—have occurred without leading to broader reconciliation.

Usage in Oriental Orthodox Churches

Armenian Apostolic Church

The traces its origins to 301 AD, when became the first nation to adopt as its under King Tiridates III, with serving as the founding bishop who established the see at Etchmiadzin. The Catholicos, as the supreme spiritual leader, has since embodied the church's role in guiding the Armenian people through centuries of adversity, including Persian persecutions in the that targeted Christian converts and Ottoman-era massacres during the 1915 Genocide, which claimed over 1.5 million lives and decimated the clergy. Unique to the Armenian tradition is its dual catholicosate , which emerged in 1441 when the see relocated temporarily to Sis () due to invasions, creating two parallel centers of authority in but with semi-autonomous jurisdictions. The Supreme Catholicos-Patriarch of All Armenians resides at the in , where His Holiness has held the office since his election in October 1999, overseeing dioceses across , , , and much of . Complementing this is the Catholicos of the Great House of , based in , Lebanon, led by His Holiness since his consecration in July 1995, who administers communities in the , , , and portions of the . Today, the two catholicosates together provide pastoral oversight to an estimated 6-9 million in the global , spanning communities in , the , , and beyond, where the church maintains cultural and spiritual continuity amid displacement. From 2023 to 2025, the Catholicos of Etchmiadzin has led international commemorations of the Armenian Genocide's 108th to 110th anniversaries, including joint services with global Orthodox bodies for of martyrs, while both leaders have advocated for church unity amid internal tensions and geopolitical pressures on Armenian communities. In 2025, these efforts have been complicated by heightened church-state tensions, including government allegations against Catholicos and calls for his resignation, amid broader debates on legitimacy and national . The title of Catholicos in the Armenian Church symbolizes enduring national sovereignty, forged in the crucible of historical trials and reinforced through consecration rituals at Etchmiadzin that invoke the protective symbolism of , the biblical peak visible from the cathedral and representing divine covenant and Armenian resilience.

Syriac Orthodox Church

In the , the title of Catholicos, synonymous with Maphrian, has been used since the to designate the second-highest ecclesiastical rank after the , originally overseeing eastern jurisdictions including Persia and . The first Maphrianate of the East was established in 628 by Patriarch Athanasius I Gammolo to administer the church's affairs beyond Antioch's immediate territory, with the incumbent residing in Tagrit (modern , ). This office evolved to include oversight of Syriac Christian communities in following strengthened ties in the 17th century, when Patriarch Ignatius Abdul Masih I dispatched Archdeacon Gregorios Abdul Jaleel to Malankara () in 1665, reaffirming Antiochene authority over the local St. Thomas Christians and integrating them into the . A pivotal development occurred in 1912 amid colonial-era divisions and internal schisms within the Malankara Church, leading to the formal establishment of a Maphrianate specifically for Indian jurisdictions under the Syriac Patriarch of Antioch; this positioned the Catholicos of India as the head of the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church faction, subordinate to the Patriarch. The title "Catholicos of India" was officially adopted in 2002 to reflect its localized scope, continuing the historical Maphrianate's legacy while emphasizing accountability to the Antiochene See. As of 2025, the current holder is Catholicos Aboon Mor Baselios Joseph I, ordained on March 25, 2025, at the Church of St. Mary Mother of God in Atchaneh, Lebanon, by Patriarch Ignatius Aphrem II, succeeding Baselios Thomas I who held the office from 2007 until his death in 2024. The Catholicos of leads approximately 1.2 million faithful primarily in , presiding over the local and focusing on the preservation of the West Syriac liturgical tradition, including chants and sacraments rooted in Antiochene heritage. In 2025, the office has been central to inter-Orthodox dialogues, such as the fifteenth meeting of Oriental Orthodox heads in May, which addressed church unity and humanitarian efforts, including aid for Middle Eastern refugees displaced by conflict. This role underscores the Catholicos's pastoral responsibilities in fostering ecumenical ties while maintaining doctrinal fidelity to miaphysite from the 5th-century councils. A distinctive tension persists between the Antiochene primacy, which views the Indian Catholicos as fully subordinate, and occasional local claims for greater autonomy, exacerbated by ongoing legal disputes in Indian courts over church properties and administration since the 1912 schism. These conflicts highlight the balance between preserving historical unity under Antioch and addressing regional governance needs in .

Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church

The emerged in 1912 through a from the Syriac Orthodox Church's Malankara mission, driven by disputes over and the desire for greater administrative . This split led to the establishment of the Catholicate of the East on September 27, 1912, when Vattasseril Dionysius was consecrated as the first Catholicos, marking the church's initial assertion of . In , the church formalized its autocephalous status by adopting a that declared the Catholicos of the East as the supreme head, independent of external patriarchal oversight, thereby solidifying its jurisdictional while retaining doctrinal ties to Oriental . This document emphasized the Catholicos's role as custodian of church properties and spiritual leader, distinguishing the from its parent body. The current head is Baselios Marthoma Mathews III, enthroned as the Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan on , 2021, at Parumala, ; he leads approximately 2.5 million members worldwide from the Catholicate headquarters in Devalokam, near , . Under his leadership, the church maintains over 1,000 parishes, primarily in , with significant diaspora communities in , , and the . The church's liturgical practices blend ancient Saint Thomas Christian traditions—rooted in the apostolic mission to —with the of Oriental Orthodoxy, featuring as the primary liturgical language alongside Syriac, and incorporating unique elements like the Qurbana () celebrated with indigenous musical modes such as . These practices reflect a synthesis of local customs, including familial inheritance of church roles and emphasis on asceticism, while adhering to miaphysite Christology. The church's shared Syriac roots trace briefly to 17th-century episcopal reinforcements from Antioch. Ongoing property disputes with the faction, stemming from the 1912 schism, have seen significant judicial interventions in 2024 and 2025; the ordered status quo maintenance in December 2024 and referred key cases to the in January 2025 for adjudication, aiming to resolve control over hundreds of churches based on the 1934 . These rulings have provided interim relief to the Orthodox faction, affirming the Catholicos's administrative primacy in disputed properties. The title of Catholicos symbolizes the church's indigeneity as a self-governing entity within the Oriental Orthodox communion, embodying the ancient legacy of Indian Christianity founded by Apostle Thomas while rejecting foreign hierarchical dominance, thus preserving cultural and spiritual autonomy for the Nasrani community. This independence underscores the church's role in fostering a distinctly Indian expression of , free from Syrian patriarchal jurisdiction.

Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

The received from the of in 1959, marking its transition from a dependent to an independent see, with consecrated as its first Patriarch-Catholicos by Coptic Pope Cyril VI. This elevation formalized the church's longstanding administrative ties to , which dated back to the fourth century when was introduced to the Kingdom of Aksum, while preserving its distinct Ethiopian identity rooted in the Tewahedo that emphasizes the unified divine-human of Christ without separation or confusion. The title of Patriarch-Catholicos underscores the leader's supreme authority over the Ethiopian faithful, blending patriarchal oversight with the catholicos role of universal headship within the Oriental Orthodox tradition. Abune Mathias, enthroned as the sixth Patriarch-Catholicos on March 3, 2013, currently holds this office, having been elected by the with 500 out of 806 votes following the death of his predecessor, . Under his leadership, the church oversees an estimated 50–60 million adherents in , comprising about 40–45% of the national population (as of 2025), though this figure has been strained by ongoing political turmoil. The Tigray conflict from 2020 to 2022, with lingering effects into 2025, has profoundly impacted the church, including the destruction of monasteries, displacement of clergy, and internal schisms, such as the formation of a breakaway in in 2024, exacerbating divisions among its predominantly Amhara and Tigrayan membership. Despite these challenges, has actively advocated for peace and reconciliation, including calls in May 2025 for an end to ethnic violence and government-mediated dialogue. The Ge'ez Rite forms a cornerstone of the church's liturgical practice, conducted primarily in the ancient Ge'ez language—a Semitic tongue derived from the Aksumite era—integrating unique elements like extensive choral singing, processional movements, and symbolic gestures that distinguish it from other Oriental Orthodox rites while aligning with miaphysite theology shared across these churches. This rite reinforces national unity by embedding Ethiopian into , with the Patriarch-Catholicos serving as a unifying figure who has historically mobilized the faithful against external threats, from medieval invasions to modern conflicts, fostering a sense of shared identity amid Ethiopia's ethnic diversity. In 2025, the church's role in broader ecumenical efforts was highlighted when the Fifteenth Meeting of the Heads of the in the , held at the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate in , issued a declaration expressing solidarity with the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches, praying for cease-fire and peace in the region.

Usage in Eastern Orthodox Churches

Georgian Orthodox Church

The title of Catholicos-Patriarch in the Georgian Orthodox Church traces its adoption to the 11th century, when Melchisedek I (r. 1010–1033) became the first to hold the combined designation of Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia following the unification of the kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti under King Bagrat III. This development built upon earlier 5th-century roots in Iberian Christianity, where the church received autocephaly from the Patriarchate of Antioch in 466. The title symbolized the church's full independence and conciliar structure within the Eastern Orthodox tradition, influenced by Byzantine ecclesiastical models. However, Russian imperial control suppressed Georgian autocephaly in 1811, integrating it into the Russian Orthodox Church until its restoration on March 12, 1917, when a national council elected Kirion II as the first Catholicos-Patriarch of the revived autocephalous church. The current Catholicos-Patriarch, Ilia II (born Irakli Ghudushauri-Shiolashvili), has held the office since his on December 25, 1977, as of 2025, at in , serving as the spiritual leader from his seat in . Under his primacy, the claims approximately 3.1–3.8 million adherents as of recent estimates, predominantly within Georgia (83% of population per 2014 census), where it functions as the dominant religious institution. Ilia II's tenure has emphasized ecumenical engagement, including expressions of solidarity with other Orthodox sees; in 2025, he extended a message of unity to the Patriarchate of Antioch amid broader Orthodox dialogues, reflecting ongoing ties with despite historical tensions from the 2018 schism. The role of the Catholicos-Patriarch uniquely blends Caucasian nationalism with Eastern Orthodox conciliarity, positioning the as both a guardian of Georgian and the head of the , which governs the church's 47 dioceses and numerous monasteries. This is exemplified in oversight of ancient sites like the complex, a 12th-century World Heritage center of theology and scholarship, where Ilia II has supported restoration efforts to preserve its frescoes and academies as symbols of Georgia's medieval golden age. Post-Soviet revival under Ilia II has further affirmed the title's significance, with the church regaining influence after decades of suppression, including the 1943 recognition of by the , and emerging as a pillar of national independence from Russian Orthodoxy.

Historical Uses in Caucasian Albania

The title of Catholicos was adopted in the during the 5th to 7th centuries, serving as the head of an autocephalous see in the region corresponding to modern-day . Initially independent and participating in the early ecumenical councils as part of the Chalcedonian tradition, this development occurred under significant Armenian influence, as the Albanian Church maintained close ties with the while asserting its independence, particularly in the face of Sassanid Persian pressures. The see's Catholicos oversaw a network of dioceses, including centers like Partav (Barda) and Amaras, reflecting the church's role in consolidating Christian identity among Albanian tribes amid regional political shifts. However, following the Fourth Council of Dvin in 645 AD, the Albanian Church formally united with the Armenian Church under Catholicos Nerses III (of ), adopting Miaphysite theology and transitioning to the Oriental Orthodox tradition for solidarity against Chalcedonian and Zoroastrian Persia; this led to the gradual absorption of the Albanian Catholicos title into the Armenian hierarchy, marking the beginning of diminished for the Albanian see. The last known Catholicos operated until around the late 8th century, following the of Barda in 768/769 AD, after which the position effectively lapsed amid the Arab conquests and Islamic expansions that integrated into the Caliphate's province by 654 AD, severely restricting Christian institutions. The legacy of the Albanian Catholicosate persists in traces among the Udi Christian communities of northern , who preserve elements of the ancient Albanian liturgical and traditions as descendants of the original Christian population. Archaeological evidence, including inscriptions and structures at sites like —later a patriarchal residence from the 13th century but rooted in earlier Albanian ecclesiastical networks—underscores this continuity, with excavations revealing medieval Christian artifacts tied to the see's historical influence. No modern revival of the title has occurred, as the church's structures dissolved without successor institutions. 20th-century scholarly debates have centered on whether the Albanian Church truly dissolved after the or merged seamlessly into the Armenian Church, with some historians arguing for a distinct Albanian preserved in local chronicles like those of Movses Kaghankatvatsi, while others emphasize the union's role in under Arab rule. These discussions, informed by Armenian and Byzantine sources, highlight ongoing questions about ethnic and ecclesiastical boundaries in the , paralleling similar evolutions in neighboring Georgian church development.

Usage in Eastern Catholic Churches

Armenian Catholic Church

The emerged as a distinct Eastern Catholic particular church in 1742, when formally established its patriarchate and confirmed Abraham Ardzivian, a former Armenian Apostolic who had entered with , as the first of Cilicia of the . This union followed a 1740 of Armenian s in that elected Ardzivian to lead the nascent community, marking the formal creation of a church preserving the ancient while affirming . The establishment built on earlier efforts, including Catholic missionary work by the Friars of Union since the 14th century and the doctrinal foundations laid at the in 1439, allowing Armenian Catholics to maintain their liturgical, theological, and cultural traditions within the universal Catholic framework. The head of the church bears the title of Catholicos-Patriarch of of the , a designation that echoes the ancient Catholicos title used in the but signifies subordination to the Bishop of . Initially based in Bzommar, , the patriarchal see was transferred to in 1867 for administrative reasons but returned to in 1928 amid the persecutions and the Armenian Genocide, which decimated communities and prompted a reorganization of the church's structure. Today, under the leadership of , elected as the 21st Catholicos-Patriarch by the patriarchal synod in on September 23, 2021, the church oversees seven dioceses in the and additional eparchies worldwide, guiding over 700,000 faithful, the majority of whom live in the across , , , and . This church uniquely blends the rich Oriental heritage of Armenian Christianity—rooted in the legacy of and the miaphysite tradition—with full integration into the Catholic communion, serving as a vital bridge for Armenian communities seeking to preserve their identity amid historical divisions. Unlike Armenian Apostolic Church, it emphasizes unity with through shared sacraments and doctrine, while fostering pastoral care for faithful facing challenges like assimilation and geopolitical tensions. In 2025, the Armenian Catholic Church engaged in significant Vatican initiatives, including the canonization of Ignatius Maloyan, a of the 1915 , on October 19 at , which underscored ongoing dialogues on spiritual renewal and unity among Eastern Churches and their global communities.

Chaldean Catholic Church

The Chaldean Catholic Church traces its origins to the within the , when a group of Assyrian bishops, rejecting the hereditary patriarchal line, elected Yuhannan Sulaqa as their leader; he traveled to and entered with the in 1553, receiving episcopal ordination from and the title of Patriarch Simon VIII of the Chaldeans. This union formalized the church's East Syriac heritage while aligning it with the , though the formal title of its head remains of Babylon of the Chaldeans rather than Catholicos. Historically, however, successors of Sulaqa adopted the combined title "Patriarch-Catholicos of Babylon of the Chaldeans," reflecting universal jurisdictional claims akin to those of a catholicos, particularly in early documents from the 16th to 18th centuries that emphasized oversight of dispersed Eastern Christian communities. These references underscore the title's occasional association with the church's patriarchal authority, even as the Nestorian schism's East Syrian roots were shared briefly with what became the . Since 2013, the church has been led by , elected by the and confirmed by , who elevated him to cardinal in 2018; based in , Sako guides a global membership of approximately 537,000 faithful, with a significant portion—around 300,000—remaining in despite ongoing persecution by extremist groups and political instability. The community has endured severe challenges, including mass displacement after the 2014 ISIS occupation of northern , which targeted Christian sites and forced thousands to flee; by 2025, fewer than 70 Christian families remain in key areas like , highlighting the scale of attrition. The Chaldean Neo-Aramaic Rite, a variant of the East Syriac liturgy, distinguishes the church's worship, incorporating ancient dialects spoken in alongside Syriac, with some Latin influences adopted post-union; this rite preserves a direct link to early Christian traditions in the region. In 2025, the patriarchal title has carried implications for reconstruction efforts in , where Sako participated in the reconsecration of the historic Al-Tahira on October 15, symbolizing resilience eight years after ISIS destruction, with Vatican funding and diplomatic support aiding the restoration as part of broader protections for endangered Eastern Christian patrimony. Despite the formal patriarchal , the role functions equivalently to that of a catholicos in overseeing the , coordinating eparchies across , , and to maintain unity and amid emigration.

Syro-Malankara Catholic Church

The emerged from a significant reunion movement within the ancient St. Thomas Christian community of , when Archbishop Geevarghese Mar Ivanios and Bishop Theophilus Mar Aprem, along with a group of faithful from the , entered into with the on September 20, 1930. This event, initiated by Mar Ivanios after years of dialogue with , preserved the church's Syriac heritage while aligning it with Catholic doctrine and governance. formally established the hierarchy for the reunited community through the Christo Pastorum Principi on June 11, 1932, designating Trivandrum as the metropolitan see. The church traces its liturgical and spiritual roots to the West Syriac tradition, originally linked to the Antiochene patriarchate, and this 1930 reunion marked a pivotal restoration of unity for an ancient Oriental Christian body. In 2005, the was elevated to the status of a Major Archiepiscopal Church by , granting it a high degree of under the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO), with its head bearing the title of Major Archbishop-Catholicos—a designation that echoes the historic Catholicos role in the Malankara tradition as spiritual father and head. The first to hold this title was Cyril Mar Baselios, installed in February 2005. The current Major Archbishop-Catholicos is Baselios Cardinal Cleemis (born Isaac Thottunkal), who was elected by the Holy Episcopal Synod on February 8, 2007, following the death of his predecessor, and enthroned on March 5, 2007, at St. Mary's Cathedral in Pattom, Trivandrum. Leading approximately 445,000 faithful primarily in across six eparchies and additional jurisdictions abroad, Cleemis oversees the church from the Catholicate Palace in Trivandrum, emphasizing , education, and monastic life through institutions like the Bethany Ashram founded by Mar Ivanios. The church's distinct role lies in its faithful adaptation of the West Syriac Rite—centered on the Divine Liturgy of Saint James—to Catholic canon law, allowing for self-governance in synodal decisions while maintaining communion with Rome, including the election of bishops and issuance of particular laws under CCEO norms. This integration supports a vibrant liturgical life rich in Syriac chant, symbolism, and monastic practices, distinct from Latin influences prevalent in other Indian Catholic communities. Ecumenically, the Syro-Malankara Church has built bridges with its Oriental Orthodox siblings, such as through the St. Ephrem Ecumenical Research Institute in Kottayam, which fosters dialogue on shared patristic heritage; in 2025, it participated in the Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue between the Catholic Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches, advancing discussions on Christology and unity during online sessions in January and February. This parallels the autonomous structure of the independent Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, from which it originated, in preserving Syriac-Indian identity. As one of India's two , the Syro-Malankara exemplifies Eastern autonomy within global Catholicism, enabling localized governance and cultural preservation amid the nation's diverse Christian landscape, and serving as a model for ecumenical that addresses gaps in recognition of Oriental traditions in Indian Catholicism. Its growth from a small reunited group to a robust community underscores the viability of such unions, contributing to broader Catholic efforts in inter-church dialogue and social outreach in .

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