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(from top) Single-pole reed switch, four-pole reed switch and single-pole reed relay. Scale in centimeters.

A reed relay[i] is a type of relay that uses an electromagnet to control one or more reed switches. The contacts are of magnetic material and the electromagnet acts directly on them without requiring an armature to move them. Sealed in a long, narrow glass tube, the contacts are protected from corrosion. The glass envelope may contain multiple reed switches or multiple reed switches can be inserted into a single bobbin and actuate simultaneously. Reed switches have been manufactured since the 1930s.

Compared with armature-based relays, reed relays can switch much faster, as the moving parts are small and lightweight, although switch bounce is still present.[1] Also, they require less operating power and have lower contact capacitance. Their current handling capacity is limited but, with appropriate contact materials, they are suitable for "dry" switching applications. They are mechanically simple, making for reliability and long life.

Memory device

[edit]

A few million reed relays were used from the 1930s to the 1960s for memory functions in Bell System electromechanical telephone exchanges.[2] Often a multiple-reed relay was used, with one of the reeds latching the relay, and the other or others performing logic or memory functions. Most reed relays in the crossbar switching systems of the 1940s through the 1970s were packaged in groups of five. Such a "reed pack" was able to store one decimal digit, encoded in a two-out-of-five code (74210 code variant) for easy validity checking by wire spring relay logic.

Such an electrically latching reed relay requires continuous power to maintain state, unlike magnetically latching relays, such as ferreed (ferrite and reed relay) or the later remreed (remanent reed relay).

Crosspoint switch

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In the Bell System Stored Program Control exchange systems of the 1970s, reed relays were no longer needed for data storage, but tens of millions of them were packaged in arrays for voice path switching. In the 1ESS switch, the cores were made of a magnetically remanent alloy, so the relay could latch magnetically instead of latching electrically. This "Ferreed" method reduced power consumption and allowed both contacts to be used for voice path. The coils were wired for coincident current selection similar to a magnetic-core memory, so operating the contacts for one crosspoint would release the other crosspoints in its row and column.

Each input of the array had, besides the two talk wires, a P lead for controlling the crosspoints on that level. Two coils on each crosspoint were wired in series with all the others on that level, to the P lead. Each output of the array also had a P lead with two coils on each crosspoint of that output level. The two windings controlled by the same level were unequal, and were wound around opposite ends of the reed, in opposing polarity. When a pulse passed through the crosspoints of a level, the two ends of each reed were magnetized north to north or south to south, thus repelled each other and opened the crosspoint in all except the selected crosspoint.

The selected crosspoint had current passing through both its input P lead and its output P lead, thus through all four windings. On each end of the ferreed, the windings provided by the two different P leads were opposed to each other, and the greater one predominated when both were energized. This being the input P lead at one end of the ferreed, and the output P lead at the other end, the two ends of that particular ferreed were magnetized north to south, hence attracted each other and closed the contact. Current was applied by the pulser only to set up the connection. The P leads remained dry and the crosspoint remained closed until such time as another connection was made involving one of the levels.[3]

Because the individual crosspoints were more expensive than those of crossbar switches, while the control circuitry was cheaper, reed arrays usually had fewer crosspoints and were more numerous. This required them to be arranged in more stages. Thus, while a telephone call in a typical crossbar exchange like 5XB passed through four switches, a call in a reed system such as 1ESS typically passed through eight.

In the later 1AESS, the reeds were of remanent magnetic material. This "Remreed" design allowed further reduction in size and power consumption. A "grid" of 1024 2-wire crosspoints, arranged as two stages of eight 8×8 switches, was permanently packaged in a box. Despite the sealed contacts, plating with silver rather than with precious metals resulted in reed arrays being less reliable than crossbar switches. When one crosspoint failed, the grid box was quickly replaced as a unit, and either repaired at a local workbench or shipped to a repair shop.

Stromberg-Carlson made the similar ESC system, whose reeds were called crossreed.

Reed relays were extensively used in the British TXE family of telephone exchanges.

Other uses

[edit]

Reed arrays passed out of use in the mid-1990s, being unnecessary in digital telephone systems such as DMS-100 and 5ESS switch. Reed relays have continued in their uses outside the telephone industry, such as for automatic test equipment and electronic instrumentation due to their hermetic seal, fast operate time, extended life to 109 operations and highly consistent contact performance. Reed relays have also found numerous applications in RF and microwave switching applications.[4] They are also used in applications which make use of their extremely low leakage current (in the order of femtoamperes) such as photomultiplier detectors and other extremely low current handling circuits. Reed switches can also be manufactured to withstand several kilovolts and are still used as high-voltage relays in place of more costly sulfur hexafluoride or vacuum relays.

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Reed relay

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from Grokipedia
A reed relay is an electromechanical switching device consisting of one or more hermetically sealed reed switches encapsulated within an electromagnetic coil, which generates a magnetic field to open or close electrical contacts without mechanical linkages. The reed switch itself comprises two ferromagnetic reeds in a glass envelope, where the applied magnetic field causes the reeds to attract and make contact, enabling low-power, precise switching of signals or loads. Invented in 1936 by Walter B. Ellwood at Bell Telephone Laboratories as a compact alternative for telephone exchanges, the reed relay builds on an earlier 1922 concept by Russian professor V. Kovalenkov and evolved into a versatile component by the 1960s for applications requiring isolation and reliability. Its operation relies on ampere-turns from the coil to produce an axial magnetic field, with contact configurations including Form A (normally open), Form B (normally closed), and Form C (changeover), allowing operate times as fast as 0.5 milliseconds. Reed relays excel in hermetic sealing, which prevents contamination and ensures insulation resistance exceeding 10^14 ohms, while supporting high-voltage switching up to 10,000 VDC and mechanical life up to 10^9 operations. Compared to traditional electromechanical relays, reed relays offer 5-10 times faster switching and 10-100 times longer life, along with lower power consumption and superior performance for low-level signals over solid-state alternatives due to minimal leakage and thermal EMF. They are prized for shock resistance up to 100 G and compact size, making them suitable for space-constrained environments like systems used in the Apollo missions. Common applications include (ATE), medical devices such as portable defibrillators, , electric vehicles, solar inverters, and instrumentation for , where their reliability and isolation prevent failures in critical circuits. Despite the rise of switches, reed relays persist in niches demanding and durability, with modern units costing under $1 due to manufacturing advances.

History and Development

Invention and Early Concepts

The origins of the reed relay trace back to 1922, when Professor Valentin Kovalenkov at Leningrad Electrotechnical University proposed the foundational concept of an electromechanical switch using magnetic actuation of flexible metal reeds enclosed in a sealed . This early idea involved two thin ferromagnetic reeds that would flex and contact each other under the influence of an external , providing a hermetically sealed mechanism for reliable switching without exposure to environmental contaminants. Kovalenkov's work laid the groundwork for magnetically operated contacts, though it remained largely theoretical and unpublished in at the time. In the mid-1930s, researchers at advanced this concept into a practical device, initiating studies in 1936 driven by the availability of new high-permeability magnetic alloys. The primary motivation was to develop a compact, low-power, and high-speed to replace the bulky, power-hungry mechanical relays used in switching systems, which suffered from wear, arcing, and maintenance issues. Walter B. Ellwood, an engineer at , refined the design into the reed , featuring two overlapping flat magnetic reeds acting as cantilevers in a sealed , actuated by an external for efficient contact closure. This innovation emphasized miniaturization and reliability for applications, enabling denser packing in switching equipment. Pre-patent experiments at in the late 1930s focused on optimizing reed materials, sealing techniques, and magnetic field interactions to achieve consistent performance under low-power conditions. Ellwood filed for a on June 27, 1940, which was granted on December 2, 1941, as U.S. 2,264,746, describing an electromagnetic switch with magnetic contacts in an evacuated or gas-filled vessel for transfer operations, highlighting its replaceable and economical design. These efforts marked the transition from conceptual prototypes to a viable technology, setting the stage for its integration into early infrastructure.

Commercial Adoption and Evolution

Following , reed relays saw initial commercial adoption in the late 1950s for telephone exchanges, where they enabled more compact crosspoint switching matrices compared to traditional electromechanical relays. , a key player in the , integrated reed relays into early electronic switching systems, culminating in the No. 1 (1ESS) deployed in 1965, which used thousands of reed relays for its switching fabric to handle voice paths with reduced size and power consumption. In , similar advancements occurred, with manufacturers like AEI contributing to the development of reed-based systems such as the REX (reed electronic exchange) for space-division electronic exchanges during the early 1960s, supporting the transition from crossbar to more efficient switching technologies. The marked a boom for reed relays, driven by the demand for integration into computers, , and early , where their small size—often under 1 cm—and fast switching speeds proved advantageous. This era also saw the introduction of dry reed relays, which eliminated mercury-wetting for improved reliability and environmental safety, using gold-plated contacts to achieve low resistance and high insulation without liquid bridges. Key manufacturers emerged during this period, including Coto Technology, which expanded into reed relays in the mid- by integrating reed switches with coil windings for applications in and test equipment. Pickering Electronics, founded in 1968, began producing high-quality dry reed relays, while Standex Electronics, established in 1969, focused on versatile reed solutions for industrial use. By the and , reed relay evolution emphasized surface-mount designs and high-frequency variants, allowing compatibility with printed circuit boards and operation up to several GHz for RF applications. Pickering's Series 109 Micro-SIL relays in 1983 halved board space requirements, paving the way for denser . In the , adaptations extended to RF and switching, where low and insertion loss made them ideal for signal routing in test systems, alongside low-power configurations for IoT devices requiring minimal coil drive currents under 10 mA. Ongoing improvements in contact materials, such as rhodium , have extended operational life to up to 10^9 cycles under low loads, enhancing durability for long-term deployments in and sensing. In the and , reed relays continued to evolve with high-voltage and surface-mount variants for RF and microwave applications up to several GHz, as well as low-power designs for portable and IoT equipment, maintaining their niche despite emerging competition from switches.

Construction and Operation

Key Components

The core of a reed relay is the , consisting of two thin, flexible ferromagnetic reeds typically made from a (approximately 50:50 composition) that are sealed within a hermetic glass tube. These reeds overlap slightly at their free ends to form electrical contacts, which are often plated with precious metals such as or for enhanced conductivity and . An optional mercury feature can be applied to the contacts in certain variants, where a of mercury improves low-level switching performance and reduces contact bounce, though it requires specific orientation during operation. The glass tube is filled with an , usually at atmospheric or slightly elevated pressure, to prevent oxidation, suppress arcing, and maintain contact integrity over millions of cycles. The energizing coil is a critical electrical component, formed by winding fine wire—often enameled for insulation—around the assembly, which serves as a ferromagnetic core to concentrate the . Coil resistances vary by voltage rating (e.g., 150–2000 ohms for 5–24 V DC operation), with the number of turns optimized for efficient field generation while minimizing power consumption. Many designs incorporate a suppression connected in parallel with the coil to protect associated circuitry from voltage spikes caused by back (EMF) during de-energization. Encapsulation provides mechanical protection and , typically using a molded or housing that encloses the and coil for environmental isolation. External leads—usually gold-plated for reliable connections—extend from the housing for the coil and switch terminals, enabling surface-mount, through-hole, or socketed integration. Optional magnetic screens are integrated within the housing to minimize external field interference and crosstalk in multi-relay arrays. Reed relays are compact, with typical dimensions ranging from 0.5 cm to 2 cm in length and 0.5–1 cm in width, depending on the package type (e.g., surface-mount or dual-in-line). Contact ratings generally support up to 10 power handling and 500 V DC switching for standard dry reed configurations, with materials selected to ensure hermetic sealing and long-term reliability.

Principle of Operation

A reed relay operates through electromagnetic actuation, where an passed through the surrounding coil generates a that magnetizes the ferromagnetic reeds within the sealed glass envelope. This magnetization causes the reeds to attract each other due to their aligned magnetic poles, resulting in and contact closure for normally open (Form A) configurations or separation for normally closed (Form B) configurations. The process relies on the reeds' ferromagnetic material, typically a nickel-iron , which amplifies the along the blade axis, enabling precise control with minimal mechanical movement. The switching cycle begins with coil energization, leading to an operate time of approximately 0.1 to 3 ms until the contacts close, followed by a release time of 0.05 to 1 ms upon de-energization when the dissipates. Contact bounce, a brief fluttering during closure, is minimized to less than 1 ms due to the reeds' spring-like properties and the rapid magnetic pull. in the magnetic field ensures stable on and off states by requiring a threshold flux for actuation and a lower level for release, preventing unintended oscillations. Electrically, reed relays consume low coil power, typically 20 to 500 mW, depending on the coil resistance and voltage, allowing efficient operation in power-sensitive applications. remains below 100 mΩ, often around 72 mΩ under static conditions, while open-circuit isolation exceeds 10^9 Ω, providing high up to 10,000 VDC. Safety is enhanced by the hermetic filled with or maintained under , which suppresses electrical arcing during switching and prevents contact oxidation or . Unlike mechanical relays, the contacts experience no physical from or sliding, as closure occurs solely through magnetic attraction, contributing to a lifespan of up to 10^9 operations under low loads.

Types and Variants

Basic Configurations

Reed relays are available in several standard configurations defined by their contact arrangements, which determine the number of poles and throws for switching circuits. The most fundamental setup is the single-pole single-throw (SPST) configuration, also known as Form A for normally open (NO) contacts or Form B for normally closed (NC) contacts. In SPST (Form A), the contacts are open in the de-energized state and close upon coil activation, enabling simple on/off switching for basic circuit control. SPST (Form B) variants maintain closed contacts without power and open when energized, often achieved by incorporating a to bias the reed blades. These SPST types are the most prevalent in reed relays due to their simplicity and compact design, suitable for low-power applications. A step up in versatility is the single-pole double-throw (SPDT) configuration, referred to as Form C, which features one common terminal connected to two throws: normally open (NO) and normally closed (NC). In this break-before-make arrangement, energizing the coil switches the common from the NC to the NO contact, allowing selection between two circuits. Latching SPDT variants, less common but available, use dual coils or a bistable magnetic design to retain the switched state without continuous power, reducing in hold positions. This configuration supports more complex routing in circuits while maintaining the reed relay's inherent low-profile operation via magnetic actuation. For demands requiring enhanced isolation or load handling, multi-pole configurations extend beyond single-pole designs by incorporating multiple reed switches within a shared coil envelope, typically up to four poles arranged in series or parallel. Examples include double-pole single-throw (DPST) for two independent SPST paths or double-pole double-throw (DPDT) combining two SPDT sets, enabling higher voltage (up to 1000 V) and current (up to 3 A carry) ratings through distributed switching. These arrangements are constructed by aligning multiple reed capsules coaxially in a larger coil, ensuring synchronized operation with minimal timing skew (50-250 µs between poles). Standard packaging for these basic configurations facilitates integration into printed circuit boards (PCBs), with options including through-hole for secure in legacy designs, surface-mount for automated assembly in compact devices, and single-in-line package (SIP) or dual-in-line package (DIP) formats for high-density layouts. Coil voltages typically range from 3 V to 24 V DC, allowing compatibility with low-voltage control systems while supporting optional overdrive for faster switching.

Specialized Variants

High-voltage variants of reed relays are engineered to handle elevated isolation requirements, typically achieving standoff voltages up to 15 kV through the use of extended reed gaps and reinforced glass encapsulation to enhance and prevent arcing. These designs incorporate high-vacuum reed switches with or contacts to maintain reliable performance under high-potential stress, often supporting switching voltages up to 12.5 kV at power levels of 50 W. RF and microwave reed relays prioritize in high-frequency environments, featuring low below 1 pF and isolation exceeding 60 dB to minimize and up to 3 GHz. or surface-mount configurations, such as those with internal 50 Ω impedance paths and electrostatic shielding, ensure low VSWR and support applications requiring precise RF path switching. These variants often employ SoftCenter™ construction to reduce mechanical stress and maintain stability across the frequency range. Latching and bi-stable reed relays utilize dual coils for independent set and reset operations, enabling the contacts to remain in either the open or closed state without continuous power, thus achieving zero static power consumption. This bistable design, often implemented in Form E configurations, relies on permanent magnets or residual magnetism in the to hold the state, making it suitable for power-sensitive environments. A momentary to the appropriate coil toggles the position, with typical operate times around 3 ms and no need for ongoing coil energization. Mercury-wetted reed relays, now considered legacy designs, incorporated a thin film of mercury on the reed contacts to provide non-bouncing, low-resistance switching for low-level signals, ensuring stable contact resistance below 100 mΩ over extended life cycles. These relays offered high reliability for sensitive analog signals due to the self-renewing mercury interface via capillary action. However, they have been phased out since the mid-2000s following regulations like the EU RoHS Directive (2002/95/EC), which restricts mercury content due to its toxicity and environmental hazards, leading to discontinuation by manufacturers such as Pickering Electronics in 2024.

Applications

Telecommunications and Switching

Reed relays played a pivotal role in early electronic switching systems for , particularly through their use in crosspoint switches that formed matrices for routing calls in exchanges. In the , AT&T's No. 1 Electronic Switching System (No. 1 ESS), introduced in 1965, utilized ferreed crosspoints— a specialized reed relay design incorporating a for magnetic latching and faster operation—to create switching networks capable of handling thousands of subscriber lines with high reliability. These matrices enabled efficient path selection in central offices, reducing mechanical wear compared to earlier crossbar systems while supporting the growing demand for automated call routing. Latching variants of reed relays also found application in memory devices within telecommunications infrastructure, providing non-volatile storage as an alternative to in the control s of 1970s minicomputers integrated into exchanges. These magnetically latched reed elements retained state information during power failures, ensuring recovery without in stored-program controls for switching operations. This capability was particularly valuable in early digital setups, where reliability under varying power conditions was essential for maintaining service continuity. In contemporary , reed relays continue to serve in signal switching roles within , leveraging their compact form factor and hermetically sealed contacts to minimize signal degradation in high-density environments.

Instrumentation and Sensing

Reed relays are widely employed in automated test equipment (ATE) for constructing switching matrices that facilitate testing, enabling the routing of low-level signals between devices under test and instruments such as oscilloscopes and logic analyzers. These relays excel in handling signals below 1 V and 10 mA, providing high with low on-resistance under 100 mΩ and off-resistance exceeding 1 MΩ, which minimizes in precision applications. Their hermetically sealed contacts ensure reliability in clean, low-noise environments, supporting topologies like multiplexers and matrices for high-speed IC testing and loopback configurations. In RF and instrumentation, reed relays serve as key components in attenuators and filters within analyzers, where they enable precise signal attenuation while maintaining low across frequencies up to 6 GHz or higher. The shielding in RF-optimized variants allows operation in 50 Ω impedance environments with flat response up to 13 GHz, making them suitable for signal routing and calibration in test setups. This configuration supports high isolation and minimal , essential for accurate analysis without introducing significant measurement errors. For sensor interfaces, reed relays integrate into magnetic proximity detection systems in industrial controls, where the reed switch responds to nearby magnetic fields to detect position or movement of machinery components, such as in automation for conveyors or robotic fixturing. They also provide overload protection in power supplies by switching circuits to isolate faults, leveraging their ability to handle high isolation voltages up to 7000 VDC and rapid response times under 1 ms. These applications benefit from the relays' non-contact operation, which enhances durability in harsh industrial settings. A representative example is their use in multimeters for relay-isolated channels, where high isolation resistance up to 1 GΩ prevents ground loops that could corrupt low-voltage measurements below 100 mV. This isolation, combined with stable low , ensures accurate in mixed-signal testing. Reed relays in such systems achieve life cycles exceeding 10^8 operations under low-load conditions, supporting long-term reliability in laboratory instrumentation.

Medical, Automotive, and Emerging Uses

In medical applications, reed relays provide reliable high-voltage switching in defibrillators, where they manage charging and discharging circuits at voltages up to 5 kV to ensure safe energy delivery during cardiac . These relays are also utilized in electrosurgical environments for precise control of electrical pulses at elevated voltages. Additionally, in patient monitoring equipment, reed relays offer high isolation resistance exceeding 1 TΩ between low- and high-voltage circuits. In the automotive sector, particularly for electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrids, reed relays act as contactors in battery management systems, switching high DC voltages up to 1 kV while enduring millions of operations under demanding conditions. They demonstrate robustness against vibrations and operate reliably across temperatures from -40°C to 125°C ambient. In EV chargers, reed relays ensure safe isolation with continuous carry current up to 3 A, with hermetic sealing that protects against and environmental contaminants. Emerging uses of reed relays extend to and connected devices, including DC-AC switching in solar inverters for photovoltaic systems, where their high standoff voltages support efficient power conversion and fault isolation. In IoT sensors for smart homes, low-power reed relays enable magnetic actuation with minimal energy consumption. Within alternative energy systems, such as controls, reed relays monitor rotational speed, contributing to reliable operation in harsh outdoor environments.

Performance Characteristics

Advantages

Reed relays are renowned for their compact design, often occupying volumes less than 1 cm³, which allows for high-density integration such as arrays of up to 40 relays per in printed circuit boards. This stems from their simple construction, featuring a hermetically sealed within a small coil assembly. Additionally, their low power requirements, with coil consumption typically ranging from 50 to 200 mW, make them suitable for battery-powered or energy-efficient systems without significant heat generation. The high reliability of reed relays is evidenced by their mechanical life expectancy of 10^8 to 10^9 cycles under low-level loads, far exceeding many electromechanical alternatives due to the absence of complex moving parts beyond the flexible reeds. Switching speeds are also exceptional, with operate and release times under 1 ms—often as low as 250 µs—enabling rapid signal routing in time-sensitive applications. The sealed glass envelope prevents contact oxidation and contamination, ensuring consistent performance over extended periods. In the off state, reed relays provide superior isolation with resistances exceeding 10^12 Ω, minimizing leakage currents to picoamp levels and making them ideal for preserving in sensitive analog circuits. Their low thermal (EMF), typically below 1 µV, further reduces noise and offset errors in precision measurements, such as those in systems. For low-power applications under 1 A, reed relays offer cost-effectiveness compared to solid-state relays (SSRs), as their mechanical simplicity avoids the need for complex drivers while providing true zero-leakage off-state behavior. Certain variants, particularly those designed for harsh environments, support use in and applications.

Limitations and Considerations

Reed relays exhibit limited power handling capabilities, typically rated for a maximum continuous current of 0.5 A and power dissipation of 10 W under dry contact conditions, making them unsuitable for applications requiring currents exceeding 5 A due to the inherent fragility of the thin ferromagnetic reed blades, which can deform or weld under high electrical stress. This constraint arises from the reed's small contact area and low , which restrict safe operation to low-power signals to prevent arcing or mechanical failure during switching. A key consideration is the sensitivity of reed relays to external magnetic fields, which can induce unintended actuation or release of the contacts; typical operate sensitivities range from 10 to 50 ampere-turns (AT), beyond which stray fields from nearby components or environmental sources may interfere with reliable operation. Such interactions often necessitate magnetic shielding or careful layout spacing in dense assemblies to avoid delayed switching times or false closures that compromise system precision. Thermal and mechanical environmental limits further constrain reed relay deployment, with standard ranges spanning -55°C to 125°C, though performance degrades at extremes due to variations in reed material expansion and coil resistance. Mechanically, they tolerate shock up to 50 g and up to 20-30 g across 10-2000 Hz, but exceedances in harsh environments like automotive or settings require additional potting or enclosures to mitigate contact bounce or fatigue. Obsolescence risks are prominent for mercury-wetted variants, which were once favored for low but have been banned in the under the RoHS Directive (2002/95/EC, effective 2006) due to mercury's , rendering them non-compliant for new designs in restricted markets. Additionally, reed relays face shorter operational life in high-frequency applications above 10 GHz, primarily owing to between contacts (typically 0.1-0.5 pF open), which introduces signal and at frequencies.

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  59. https://www.littelfuse.com/products/relays-contactors-transformers/reed-relays
  60. https://www.cotorelay.com/AppNotes/Testing-Reed-Switches-Relays-for-Reliability.pdf
  61. https://www.pickeringrelay.com/10-key-benefits/
  62. https://www.pickeringtest.com/en-us/kb/hardware-topics/relay-reliability/choose-a-reliable-reed-relay-construction
  63. https://www.pickeringrelay.com/high-voltage-reed-relay-resource-center/insulation-resistance/
  64. https://standexdetect.com/products/relays/reed-relays/
  65. https://www.pickeringrelay.com/low-thermal-emf/
  66. https://www.pickeringrelay.com/reed-relay-comparison/
  67. https://www.comcraft.co.jp/products/pickering/data/space-application-guide.pdf
  68. https://cototechnology.com/library/appnote/cotoclassic-reed-relay-power-ratings-and-switching-capabilities.pdf
  69. https://www.pickeringrelay.com/magnetic-interaction/
  70. https://standexelectronics.com/reed-switch-technology/magnet-interaction-effects-on-reed-switch-operations/
  71. https://www.littelfuse.com/assetdocs/extreme-temperature-reed-switch-operation-application-note?assetguid=ec222c89-b932-4ae7-948b-2575ed5df158
  72. https://cototechnology.com/product/2970-series-reed-relays-for-40oc-to-125oc/
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