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Ovenbirds
Scaly-throated foliage-gleaner (Anabacerthia variegaticeps)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Parvorder: Furnariida
Family: Furnariidae
Gray, 1840
Subfamilies

Ovenbirds or furnariids are a large family of small suboscine passerine birds found from Mexico and Central to southern South America. They form the family Furnariidae. This is a large family containing around 321 species and 71 genera. The ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla), which breeds in North America, is not a furnariid – rather it is a distantly related bird of the wood warbler family, Parulidae.

The ovenbirds are a diverse group of insectivores which get their name from the elaborate, vaguely "oven-like" clay nests built by the horneros, although most other ovenbirds build stick nests or nest in tunnels or clefts in rock.[1] The Spanish word for "oven" (horno) gives the horneros their name. Furnariid nests are always constructed with a cover, and up to six pale blue, greenish or white eggs are laid. The eggs hatch after 15 to 22 days, and the young fledge after a further 13 to 20 days.[2]

They are small to medium-sized birds, ranging from 9 to 35 cm in length.[2] While individual species often are habitat specialists, species of this family can be found in virtually any Neotropical habitat, ranging from city parks inhabited by rufous horneros, to tropical Amazonian lowlands by many species of foliage-gleaners, to temperate barren Andean highlands inhabited by several species of miners. Two species, the seaside and the surf cinclodes, are associated with rocky coasts.

Taxonomy and systematics

[edit]

The woodcreepers (formerly Dendrocolaptidae) were merged into this family, following analysis of sequences.[3] While confirming the overall phylogenetic pattern, other scientists instead opted for maintaining the woodcreepers as a separate family, while splitting the ovenbirds (as traditionally defined) into two families, Furnariidae and Scleruridae.[4]

The cladogram below showing the subfamilies of the ovenbirds is based on a molecular genetic studies that revealed that Sclerurinae was the first group to diverge[5][6] The species numbers are from the list maintained by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).[7]

Furnariidae

Sclerurinae – miners and leaftosser (18 species)

Dendrocolaptinae – woodcreepers (60 species)

Furnariinae – "true" ovenbirds (243 species)

The phylogeny of the Furnariidae is now well understood thanks to multiple analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA.[8][9][10][11][12] Among other discoveries, the classification of several genera had to be revised.[13][14][15] The taxonomic arrangement presented below is based on molecular genetic studies of ovenbird relationships.[4][16][17][12] However, because ovenbirds and woodcreepers are treated here as a single family some taxonomic ranks were modified. For more detail see "List of ovenbird species".

Subfamily: Sclerurinae – miners and leaftossers

Subfamily: Dendrocolaptinae – woodcreepers

Subfamily: Furnariinae – Neotropical ovenbirds and allies

Rufous hornero (Furnarius rufus) nest, showing the entrance chamber and dividing wall to breeding chamber

The phylogenetic tree shown below is based on a large-scale genetic 2020 study of the suboscines by Michael Harvey and collaborators.[11] The tawny tit-spinetail (Leptasthenura yanacencis) has been moved to the genus Sylviorthorhynchus, the sulphur-bearded spinetail (Cranioleuca sulphurifera) has been moved to the genus Limnoctites and its English name changed to the sulphur-bearded reedhaunter, and the white-bellied spinetail (Synallaxis propinqua) has been placed in the monotypic genus Mazaria.[27] These changes are included in the tree shown below. The remaining paraphyletic genera are flagged in the tree by an asterisk.

In 2009, the large ovenbird family was divided into tribes by Robert Moyle and collaborators. The tribes as defined in the 2009 article do not fit well with the revised taxonomy of Harvey and are not included here. For example, the tribe Furnariini as defined in the 2009 article is not monophyletic in the Harvey phylogeny.[4] The species numbers in the cladogram are from the list maintained by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).[7]

Furnariinae

Xenops – xenops (5 species)

Berlepschia – point-tailed palmcreeper

Microxenops – rufous-tailed xenops

Pygarrhichas – white-throated treerunner

Ochetorhynchus – earthcreepers and crag chilia (4 species)

Premnoplex – barbtails (2 species)

Margarornis – treerunners (4 species)

Cichlocolaptes – treehunters (2 species)

*Philydor pyrrhodes – cinnamon-rumped foliage-gleaner

*Philydor atricapillus (type of genus) – black-capped foliage-gleaner

Heliobletus – sharp-billed treehunter

Neophilydor – foliage-gleaners (2 species) (formerly in Philydor)

Anabazenops – foliage-gleaners (2 species)

Megaxenops – great xenops

Anabacerthia – foliage-gleaners (5 species)

Syndactyla – foliage-gleaners (8 species)

Ancistrops – chestnut-winged hookbill

Dendroma – foliage-gleaners (2 species)

Clibanornis – foliage-gleaners (5 species)

Thripadectes – treehunters (7 species)

Automolus – foliage-gleaners and woodhaunters (10 species)

Tarphonomus – earthcreepers (2 species)

Premnornis – rusty-winged barbtail

Pseudocolaptes – tufted-cheeks (3 species)

Furnarius – horneros (8 species)

Lochmias – sharp-tailed streamcreeper

Limnornis – curve-billed reedhaunter

Phleocryptes – wren-like rushbird

Geocerthia – striated earthcreeper

Upucerthia – earthcreepers (4 species)

Cinclodes – cincloides (15 species)

Aphrastura – rayaditos (2 species)

Sylviorthorhynchus – Des Murs's wiretail and tawny tit-spinetail (2 species)

Leptasthenura – tit-spinetails (9 species)

Phacellodomus – thornbirds (10 species)

Anumbius – firewood-gatherer

Coryphistera – lark-like brushrunner

Hellmayrea – white-browed spinetail

Asthenes – canasteros and thistletails (30 species)

Pseudasthenes – canasteros (4 species)

Synallaxis – spinetails (37 species)

Certhiaxis – spinetails (2 species)

Schoeniophylax – chotoy spinetail

Mazaria – white-bellied spinetail

Spartonoica – bay-capped wren-spinetail

Pseudoseisura – cacholotes (4 species)

Acrobatornis – pink-legged graveteiro

Metopothrix – orange-fronted plushcrown

Xenerpestes – greytails (2 species)

Siptornis – spectacled prickletail

*Thripophaga gutturata – speckled spinetail (formerly in Cranioleuca)

*Thripophaga fusciceps – plain softtail

Roraimia – Roraiman barbtail

*Thripophaga macroura (type) – striated softtail

Limnoctites – reedhaunters (2 species)

Cranioleuca – spinetails (20 species)

Fossil record

[edit]

Furnariids boast a notable fossil record for a passerine family. Numerous fossils comprising multiple skeletal elements, including cranial remains, have facilitated the identification and description of five distinct fossil species. Among these, two have been classified within the extant genera Cinclodes and Pseudoseisura, while the remaining three belong into the extinct genus Pseudoseisuropsis. All fossil are of Pleistocene age.

References

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Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ovenbird (family)

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The ovenbirds (family Furnariidae) are a diverse group of approximately 321 small to medium-sized suboscine birds, encompassing both traditional ovenbirds and woodcreepers, that are endemic to the Neotropical region from through to southern , including offshore islands such as Trinidad and the Falklands. Known for their exceptional morphological and behavioral adaptations, they range in size from 9 to 35 cm and 8 to 109 g, with plumage typically in shades of brown, , or gray, often featuring streaks or spots for in varied environments. This family, one of the most -rich among Neotropical passerines with 71 genera, exhibits extraordinary ecological versatility, occupying nearly every from coastal intertidal zones and deserts to high-altitude Andean puna and urban areas, where they forage primarily for , spiders, and small vertebrates using specialized bills and stiffened tails for climbing, probing, or ground-running. Their foraging strategies vary widely, from terrestrial scampering in like the (Furnarius rufus) to acrobatic arboreal climbing in woodcreepers like Dendrocolaptes picumnus, reflecting convergent evolutions in foot and tail structures that enhance grip on bark or . Furnariids are predominantly monogamous and territorial, with many forming long-term pairs and defending year-round territories, though some undertake altitudinal or short-distance migrations. Breeding behaviors are equally diverse, featuring complex vocalizations for mate attraction and territory defense, and nests that range from simple ground scrapes or tree cavities to elaborate domed structures of mud, grass, or twigs—earning the family its name from the oven-like mud nests built by such as the , which can withstand harsh weather and are often placed on posts or buildings. Clutch sizes typically number 2–5 eggs, incubated for 14–22 days by both parents, with fledging occurring after 13–29 days, and some exhibit where helpers assist at the nest. Conservation challenges affect about 14% of , primarily due to habitat loss from and , with 46 of conservation concern (19 near threatened, 14 vulnerable, 7 endangered, and 6 critically endangered) by the IUCN, highlighting the vulnerability of habitat specialists in rapidly changing Neotropical ecosystems.

Taxonomy and systematics

Classification history

The family Furnariidae was first established by in as part of his classification of birds, initially encompassing a group of Neotropical species noted for their diverse nesting behaviors. Early taxonomic treatments separated the woodcreepers into a distinct , Dendrocolaptidae, based primarily on morphological differences such as bill shape and adaptations, a division that persisted through much of the 20th century. Molecular phylogenetic studies in the early prompted significant revisions. Irestedt et al. (2006) analyzed sequences from two mitochondrial genes (ND2 and ND3) and three nuclear genes ( intron 2, β-fibrinogen 5, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate intron 11), providing strong evidence for the of the core ovenbirds while highlighting close relationships with woodcreepers. Building on this, Claramunt et al. (2010) proposed merging Dendrocolaptidae into Furnariidae, supported by comprehensive DNA sequence data from nearly all genera, resulting in a unified with over 70 genera encompassing the diverse ovenbirds and woodcreepers. This merger was adopted by major ornithological authorities, reflecting the shared evolutionary history revealed by genetic analyses. As of version 15.1 of the International Ornithological Congress (IOC) World Bird List (April 2025), Furnariidae is recognized as comprising 321 species across 71 genera, reflecting ongoing refinements from phylogenetic research. The of the family name derives from the Furnarius, Latin for "" (from furnus, meaning ""), alluding to the distinctive mud nests built by species like the (Furnarius rufus), which resemble traditional baking ovens.

Subfamilies and genera

The family Furnariidae is divided into three main subfamilies based on molecular and morphological evidence: Sclerurinae (leaf tossers and miners), Furnariinae (ovenbirds proper), and Dendrocolaptinae (woodcreepers). This classification reflects phylogenetic analyses that identify these groups as distinct lineages within the family, with Sclerurinae representing the basal divergence. Sclerurinae contains 18 species across several genera, primarily ground-foraging specialists adapted to leaf-litter habitats. Furnariinae is the most diverse subfamily, encompassing 243 species in numerous genera, including the horneros and spinetails; it accounts for the majority of the family's morphological variation, from dome-nesting builders to foliage-gleaners. Dendrocolaptinae includes 60 species of tree-climbing woodcreepers, characterized by stiff tail feathers and downward-curved bills suited for bark . The family comprises 71 genera and 321 . Notable genera illustrate the family's diversity. The genus Furnarius (horneros) includes 8 species known for their oven-like mud nests, such as the rufous hornero (F. rufus). Synallaxis, the largest genus with 26 spinetail species, features small, secretive birds with long graduated tails, exemplifying the subfamily's radiation into shrubby understories. In Dendrocolaptinae, Dendrocolaptes comprises 5 woodcreeper species, including the Amazonian barred-woodcreeper (D. certhia), which highlight adaptations for vertical foraging on large trees. Species diversity has increased in recent years due to taxonomic revisions informed by genetic data and field observations. For instance, updates from eBird and the Handbook of the Birds of the World (now integrated into Birds of the World) have recognized splits such as the Pacific hornero (Furnarius cinnamomeus) from the pale-legged hornero in 2023. Similarly, the subantarctic rayadito (Aphrastura subantarctica) was described as a new species in 2022 based on vocal and genetic distinctions from the thorn-tailed rayadito. Molecular phylogeny, as detailed in Harvey et al. (2020), reveals basal divergences within Furnariidae dating to 18.7–36.5 million years ago, with subsequent gradual accumulation of diversity rather than explosive radiations; this tree underscores the subfamilies' and the role of Andean uplift in early splits.

Physical characteristics

Morphology and size

Ovenbirds in the Furnariidae display considerable variation in size, with body lengths ranging from approximately 9 to 35 cm and weights from 8 to 169 g across the family's 321 . The smallest members, such as the little thornbird (Phacellodomus sibilatrix), measure 13–14 cm in length and weigh 14–16 g. In contrast, the largest , the strong-billed woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes promeropirhynchus), attains lengths of 28–35 cm and weights of 107–169 g. This size diversity correlates with ecological niches, from tiny foliage gleaners to robust trunk climbers, though most fall within the small to medium range of 10–26 cm and 8–109 g. Body structures among ovenbirds range from slender and agile forms suited to dense navigation to more robust builds in ground-foraging taxa. Wings are typically short and rounded, facilitating agile flight in forested or shrubby environments rather than long-distance migration. Tails vary significantly in length and shape: ground-dwellers like earthcreepers (Geositta spp.) possess short, stiff tails for balance on terrestrial substrates, while arboreal creepers such as spinetails (Synallaxis spp.) feature long, graduated tails stiffened by enlarged shafts and bare tips to aid in climbing and bracing against vertical surfaces. Legs are strong and adapted for perching or walking, with thick tarsi and large feet enabling secure grips on branches or probing of and . Bill morphology shows exceptional diversity, from short and straight in leaf-sifters to long and decurved in bark-probers, directly tied to strategies such as from foliage or excavating dead wood. Specialized forms include the upturned bills of marsh-dwelling like the wren-like rushbird (Phleocryptes melanops), which facilitate sifting through and probing for aquatic invertebrates. This pseudo-rhynchokinetic bill flexibility allows precise manipulation of substrates without full . As suboscine passerines, ovenbirds share skeletal traits including a simple tracheobronchial lacking intrinsic muscles, which supports less complex vocalizations compared to oscines and confirms the family's . The suboscine features a distinctive bony configuration with fused vomers and maxillopalatines, adapted for their feeding mechanics. Foot morphology is anisodactyl, with three forward-directed toes (II–IV) and a robust backward-oriented hallux, enhanced in climbing species by robust tarsometatarsi, wider spreads, and curved claws for secure to rough bark or vines. In woodcreeper subgroups, functional between digits III and IV further bolsters acrobatic climbing without tail support in some taxa.

Plumage and sexual dimorphism

Ovenbirds in the family Furnariidae display predominantly cryptic plumage adapted for concealment in their diverse Neotropical habitats, featuring shades of brown, gray, and rufous with streaked or barred patterns that mimic surrounding vegetation and substrates. Dorsal plumage tends to be darker and less variable in brighter open environments and lighter in denser forests, reflecting natural selection for crypsis against background matching. Ventral regions are generally brighter and exhibit greater evolutionary lability, as seen in genera like Furnarius (horneros), where underparts show rufous or orange tones contrasting with the subdued dorsum. Molt cycles in Furnariidae typically involve a complete post-breeding prebasic molt to replace worn feathers, with timing often aligned to avoid overlap with breeding in non-migratory species. The preformative molt following fledging varies by genus: it is complete in foliage-gleaners like Philydor and Automolus, replacing all body feathers and remiges, but partial in spinetails (Synallaxis) and thornbirds (Phacellodomus), where and rectrices are retained. Sexual dimorphism in plumage is minimal across the family, with most species exhibiting monochromatic coloration dominated by melanin-based browns and grays, though subtle achromatic differences occur in some cases. Females may appear slightly brighter or paler than males in specific patches, such as the throat in Schoeniophylax phryganophilus or underparts in Furnarius rufus, but chromatic dichromatism is rare. In woodcreepers (subfamily Dendrocolaptinae), dimorphism is limited to slight size differences, with males averaging larger in body measurements. Age-related plumage changes are evident in juveniles, which possess duller versions of adult patterns, often with reduced contrast in markings and an ochraceous wash on underparts. In spinetails (Synallaxis), young birds feature buff fringes or spots on the head, upperparts, and underparts, creating a scalloped or barred appearance that fades during the preformative molt to match adult cryptic tones. These immature traits typically persist for weeks to months before full transition to definitive plumage.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The family Furnariidae exhibits a broad Neotropical distribution, extending continuously from southward through and across to the southern tip of the continent. The northernmost representatives include species such as the Northern Spot-crowned Woodcreeper (Lepidocolaptes affinis), which ranges into . In the south, the distribution reaches , where species like the Common Miner (Geositta cunicularia) and (Geositta antarctica) occur, with the latter representing one of the southernmost breeding passerines globally. The family is absent from most Caribbean islands, with the exception of , where a limited number of species, such as the Cocoa Woodcreeper (Xiphorhynchus susurrans), are present. This latitudinal coverage spans approximately from 23°N to 55°S, encompassing diverse biomes across the region. Diversity is highest in the Andean cordilleras and the , where environmental heterogeneity supports elevated species richness; for instance, alone hosts 149 species, while records approximately 132 species, contributing to more than 200 species across these areas combined. patterns are pronounced in southern , particularly in Patagonia, where several species are restricted to this region, such as the Patagonian Forest Earthcreeper (Upucerthia saturatior). Most Furnariidae species are sedentary, with long-distance migration being rare; only a few, like certain miners, exhibit short-distance altitudinal or latitudinal movements. The historical range of the family reflects post-Pleistocene expansions, facilitated by climatic oscillations that connected fragmented habitats, such as dry forest arcs across Amazonia, as evidenced by phylogeographic studies of species like the Rufous-fronted Thornbird (Phacellodomus rufifrons). Recent assessments indicate no major range shifts, with distributions remaining stable in monitored populations.

Habitat preferences and adaptations

The Furnariidae exhibits remarkable habitat diversity, occupying a wide array of Neotropical environments including humid and dry forests, shrublands, grasslands, and wetlands, from lowland tropical regions to high-elevation Andean ecosystems. This versatility is evident in their presence across virtually every terrestrial American , spanning from in the to the bases of Andean glaciers at elevations up to 5000 m. Vertical stratification allows many to exploit distinct elevational zones, with some undertaking altitudinal migrations in response to seasonal variations in the . Morphological and behavioral adaptations enable Furnariidae to thrive in these varied settings. Ground-foraging species, such as miners in the genus Geositta, are specialized for open, treeless areas like arid shrublands and grasslands, featuring short tails for balance during terrestrial movement and long wings for efficient flight over expansive terrains. In contrast, arboreal creepers like woodcreepers (Dendrocolaptinae) are adapted to forest canopies with stiffened tail feathers and curved bills for and probing bark. Aquatic or semi-aquatic forms, such as the sharp-tailed streamcreeper (Lochmias nematura), inhabit fast-flowing riparian zones and possess partially webbed feet to navigate rocky streams and wet substrates effectively. Microhabitat specialization further underscores their ecological flexibility. Certain spinetails in the genus Synallaxis, including the chestnut-throated spinetail (S. cherriei), are near-obligate specialists, favoring dense stands of bamboo in humid forests where they exploit the understory vegetation. Riparian corridors along rivers and streams support species like Cinclodes wrens, which tolerate wet, rocky margins, while the (Furnarius rufus) demonstrates notable urban tolerance, persisting in modified landscapes including city parks and agricultural edges due to its broad environmental adaptability. Climate influences shape habitat use and resilience within the family. In arid regions, synallaxine ovenbirds have diversified rapidly into dry shrub steppes and grasslands, with adaptations such as exposed vegetative nesting (though not detailed here) facilitating survival in drought-prone areas linked to aridification events. Andean species often exhibit elevational shifts during harsh weather, migrating downslope to avoid extreme cold or storms, while coastal and dwellers like certain Geositta miners show physiological tolerances to through efficient in hyper-arid zones.

Behavior and ecology

Foraging and diet

Ovenbirds (Furnariidae) primarily consume arthropods, with insects such as , beetles, and larvae forming the core of their diet, supplemented by spiders in many species. Larger woodcreepers within the family occasionally include small vertebrates like and frogs, while seeds and fruits are consumed sporadically, particularly by ground-foraging taxa. Vegetable matter, including , plays a minimal role overall, though some species exhibit opportunistic frugivory. Foraging methods among ovenbirds are highly diverse, corresponding to their varied habitats and bill morphologies, which facilitate specialized techniques such as probing in miners and ground-dwellers. Many species glean prey from bark, leaves, or leaf litter, while others probe into , dead wood, or crevices; sallying pursuits of aerial occur in foliage-gleaners and some open-country forms. Woodcreepers typically ascend trunks in a spiral manner, supported by stiff feathers, to extract hidden . Most individuals solitarily or in pairs, with mixed-species being uncommon except in disturbed areas. Ecologically, ovenbirds contribute to insect population regulation in Neotropical ecosystems, helping suppress outbreaks of herbivorous that impact dynamics. Their foraging activities in litter and wood also promote nutrient cycling through facilitation. As predominantly insectivorous residents, certain species act as bioindicators of quality, with declines signaling degradation in health. Seasonal dietary patterns show elevated arthropod consumption during breeding to support reproductive demands, but shifts to fruits or seeds remain limited even in non-breeding periods.

Breeding biology and nesting

Ovenbirds in the family Furnariidae are primarily socially monogamous, with pairs often forming lifelong bonds and defending nesting territories. Breeding typically occurs during the spring and summer in temperate regions or at the onset of the rainy season in tropical areas, aligning with increased food availability; some may produce one or two broods per year, with replacement clutches if the first fails. involves displays such as wing-raising, hovering flights accompanied by song, and courtship feeding by males to females. Nest architecture in Furnariidae is highly diverse and genetically determined, with cavity nesting considered the ancestral condition; species construct nests ranging from subterranean burrows and tree cavities to elaborate dome-shaped "ovens" made of clay and mud (as in the genus Furnarius, or horneros), tubular stick tunnels (in spinetails like Synallaxis and Phacellodomus), and cup-shaped structures of woven leaves or pliable vegetation (in foliage-gleaners like Philydor). These nests are built biparentally over periods of two weeks to three months using materials such as mud, grass, twigs, thorns, dung, and plant fibers, often sited in protected locations like thorny vegetation, cactuses, or ground depressions to deter predators; domed structures provide enhanced defense against predation by obscuring the nest chamber and entrance. Some species, such as certain horneros, exhibit nest reuse in subsequent seasons or by subsequent generations, though many build new nests annually. Clutches consist of 2–6 pale white or lightly tinted eggs, laid on alternate days, with incubation lasting 14–22 days and shared by both parents; in the thorn-tailed rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda), for example, incubation averages 14 days starting with the penultimate egg. are altricial and remain in the nest for 13–29 days before fledging, with larger species having longer nestling periods; is biparental, involving equal contributions to brooding, feeding nestlings (primarily arthropods), and removing fecal sacs, and extends post-fledging for up to a month or more. While most species exhibit strict biparental care, occurs in some spinetails, where helpers assist with feeding and nest defense.

Vocalizations and social behavior

Ovenbirds (Furnariidae) exhibit a vocal typical of suboscine passerines, characterized by relatively simple songs consisting of whistles, trills, and repetitive notes rather than the complex, learned melodies of oscines. Many species produce "loudsongs," which are consistently patterned, multiple-note vocalizations often delivered from exposed perches and used primarily in territorial contexts. Alarm calls are typically sharp, high-pitched, and repetitive, serving to alert mates or nearby individuals to potential threats. Contact calls, such as short whistles or chatters, facilitate coordination between foraging pair members, helping maintain proximity in dense vegetation. Duetting is a prominent feature in several ovenbird species, particularly during the breeding season, where pairs synchronize their songs to reinforce pair bonds and defend territories. For example, in the (Furnarius rufus), mates produce sexually distinct songs that overlap in antiphonal duets, with males delivering faster-paced, lower-pitched phrases and females contributing higher, accelerating notes. These duets convey information about pair quality and morphology, enhancing joint territorial defense. Socially, most ovenbirds are monogamous, with pairs forming long-term bonds that often last a lifetime and sharing duties in territory maintenance and . They are strongly territorial, using and duets to advertise and defend year-round or seasonal territories against intruders. During the non-breeding season, some join loose mixed-species flocks in forested habitats, which may provide foraging benefits while pairs remain cohesive within these groups. Vocal complexity varies across the family, with more social genera like the thornbirds (Synallaxis) featuring elaborate, multi-part calls and frequent duets that support group coordination and defense. In contrast, solitary woodcreepers (subfamily Dendrocolaptinae, e.g., Dendrocolaptes) have simpler vocalizations, often limited to repetitive whistles or trills for basic territory signaling and pair contact.

Evolution and fossils

Fossil record

The fossil record of the Furnariidae is sparse and confined to the Pleistocene epoch, with no earlier occurrences documented, reflecting the generally poor preservation of small passerine birds in the geological record. Fossils have been recovered primarily from localities in , , and , consisting mainly of skeletal elements such as skulls, humeri, and femora, with occasional postcranial bones; nest structures or remnants are not reported. Notable discoveries include remains attributable to six species, encompassing both extinct taxa and representatives of extant lineages. In , the extinct Cinclodes major is known from an incomplete skeleton recovered from Middle Pleistocene deposits in , indicating a larger-bodied relative of the modern Cinclodes. Fossils assigned to the extant Cinclodes patagonus have also been identified from Pleistocene sites in southern , suggesting continuity of the species through glacial-interglacial cycles. The extinct Pseudoseisuropsis, characterized by schizognathous palatines and prokinetic skulls adapted for ground-foraging, includes three species: P. nehuen from the Lower-Middle Pleistocene Miramar Formation in , Argentina; P. wintu from associated Chapadmalalan-age deposits in the same region; and P. cuelloi from the upper Pleistocene Sopas Formation in . Key fossil sites include the Chapadmalalan and Miramar Formations in , which have yielded the majority of specimens, and the Formation in , representing fluvial and paludal environments conducive to bone preservation. No direct equivalents to North American tar pit assemblages like La Brea have been identified for furnariids in , though some Brazilian Pleistocene localities preserve isolated bones in cave and fluvial contexts. Extinctions within the family appear minor, with only the Pseudoseisuropsis lineage disappearing by the , likely due to habitat alterations from post-glacial warming and rather than megafaunal or early impacts, as most modern furnariids persisted through this interval.

Phylogenetic relationships

The family (Furnariidae) is part of the infraorder Tyrannida within the suboscine Passeriformes, with divergence from other major suboscine s occurring during the late Eocene to early , approximately 33–40 million years ago (mya). This timing aligns with the radiation of suboscines, where Furnariidae shares close phylogenetic affinity with antbirds (Thamnophilidae) and tyrant-flycatchers (Tyrannidae) in the Tyrannida . Molecular phylogenies based on multi-locus nuclear DNA have confirmed this placement, resolving earlier uncertainties in suboscine relationships through extensive taxon sampling. Within Furnariidae, the internal phylogeny positions the subfamily Sclerurinae (miners and leaftossers) as basal, with the woodcreeper subfamily Dendrocolaptinae nested deeply within the derived Furnariinae (true ovenbirds). This nesting resolves historical in traditional classifications, such as the former separation of woodcreepers as a distinct (Dendrocolaptidae), and highlights convergent morphological adaptations across lineages. Comprehensive genomic analyses, including those sampling over 2,300 loci across nearly all suboscine species, further support this structure and reveal steady lineage accumulation rather than an early burst of diversification. Rapid radiations within Furnariidae, particularly in highland taxa, coincided with the uplift of the (ca. 23–5 mya), which created novel habitats and drove adaptive shifts in foraging and nesting behaviors. Biogeographically, the family traces to ancestors in southern South American forests, with subsequent adaptive radiations into diverse Neotropical ecosystems from grasslands to montane woodlands, facilitated by vicariance events tied to continental fragmentation and climatic changes.

References

  1. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/furnar2/cur/introduction
  2. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Furnariidae/
  3. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10008296/
  4. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-0031.2009.00259.x
  5. https://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline07.htm
  6. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790306001813
  7. https://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCprop434.html
  8. https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/
  9. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Furnariidae
  10. https://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCprop272.html
  11. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaz6970
  12. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/palhor4/cur/introduction
  13. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-17985-4
  14. https://www.bird-phylogeny.de/passerine-families/furnariidae/
  15. https://animalia.bio/strong-billed-woodcreeper
  16. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/littho1/cur/introduction
  17. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/stbwoo1/cur/introduction
  18. https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-9-268
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