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Hot start
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Hot start
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There are two very different definitions of hot start commonly used in aviation – one for turbine engines and one for reciprocating fuel injected engines.

Reciprocating fuel injected engines

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In an aircraft with a reciprocating fuel injected engine a hot start is a condition where an engine start is attempted after it has been run, achieved operating temperature, and then recently shut down. The engine is therefore "hot ", hence the terminology "hot start". When a reciprocating fuel injected engine is shut down, the residual engine heat dissipates into the air and the surrounding aircraft structure. Some of this heat is transferred to the engine fuel lines and fuel injector lines in the engine compartment and because no fuel is flowing in the lines to cool them as would be under normal operating conditions, the fuel may vaporize or "boil" within these fuel lines creating a condition called vapor lock. This combination of liquid fuel and vaporized fuel within the fuel line will result in inconsistent fuel availability to the engine fuel pump and fuel injection system. If severe, the fuel pumps can "cavitate" (when the pumping chamber fills with fuel vapor rather than liquid fuel) and become ineffective. The vapor in the fuel lines and loss of fuel pump effectiveness result in inconsistent fuel flow to the engine fuel injectors and ultimately the cylinders resulting in difficult starting. Vapor lock can also occur in flight in some aircraft resulting in a rough running engine or engine stoppage.

Unlike a turbine engine, a hot start is unlikely to damage a reciprocating fuel injected engine. However, with improper starting procedure the situation may progress to the point that the operator depletes the starter battery before successfully starting the engine and there is risk of battery or starter damage and excess wear due to these repeated unsuccessful attempts to start the engine.

On the ground, a vapor lock condition in the fuel lines is merely an inconvenience. However, in the air, it becomes an emergency situation due to the difficulty in restarting the engine. Therefore, it is important that operators of reciprocating fuel injected engines switch fuel tanks prior to fuel exhaustion and to know and understand the hot start engine starting procedure. Most pilot operating handbooks for aircraft with reciprocating fuel injected engines describe specific procedures for starting the engine(s) after a recent shutdown while the engine is still "hot" in an attempt to avoid a vapor lock condition in the fuel feed lines or injector lines and enable a successful engine restart. Not all pilot operating handbooks use the hot start terminology to describe this procedure. Additionally, most pilot operating handbooks for aircraft susceptible to a vapor lock condition have a procedure for addressing vapor lock or "rough engine" if encountered in flight.

Turbine engines

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In contrast to reciprocating fuel injected engines, a hot start in a turbine type engine is the result of improper starting technique and not simply the condition of starting an engine which is hot due to having been recently run and shutdown.

In a turbojet, turbofan or turboprop engine, a great amount of the air ingested by the engine runs around the combustion chamber or around its flame, instead of being mixed with fuel and burned. The purpose of this air is to cool the combustion chambers and keep the temperature of the chamber within its limits. If it weren't for this cooling effect, the chamber would get too hot because of the combustion, and it would then be burned or even melted.

Regardless of the jet engine variant (pure jet, turbofan or turboprop), the engine's compressor must already be spinning before igniting the fuel, so as to have the compressors attain enough speed to draw air and make it flow through the engine. When there is a sufficient amount of air flowing, the fuel is injected, and then the engine will be able to run by itself.

The critical part is injecting the fuel. If the fuel is ignited before there is enough air flowing around the chamber, its temperature will increase dramatically and exceed the design limits of the combustion chamber and turbine blades, thus causing a failure. This condition is known as a hot start.[1]

In some modern jet engines, the full authority digital engine control (FADEC) system prevents such a condition from occurring. When a FADEC is not present the flight crew has to monitor the engine parameters and manually shut off the fuel valve if the exhaust temperature exceeds its maximum allowed value.

References

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Hot start

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A hot start is a critical malfunction during the startup of a ( in , characterized by the exceedance of the manufacturer's defined limiting temperature—typically measured as turbine inlet temperature (TIT), , or interstage temperature (ITT)—due to insufficient through the relative to the introduced and ignited. This condition arises when the fails to accelerate properly, leading to excessive heat buildup in the and sections before adequate cooling is established. Unlike normal starts, where temperatures remain within safe operational bounds (often lower than start limits), a hot start poses an immediate of damage to components such as blades and nozzles. The primary causes of hot starts include inadequate from a weak starter motor, insufficient supply from the (APU) or , incorrect fuel scheduling that introduces too much fuel too early, and external factors like tailwinds causing reverse into the . Slow acceleration exacerbates the issue, as the does not spin up quickly enough to provide the necessary cooling air mass flow, allowing temperatures to spike rapidly. Hot starts can occur in any variant, including turbojets, turboprops, and turbofans. Consequences of an unchecked hot start can be severe, potentially requiring extensive maintenance such as replacement of hot-section components, inspection of the compressor, or even full engine overhaul to prevent catastrophic failure in subsequent operations. Pilots and automated systems like full authority digital engine control (FADEC) monitor parameters closely during startup; if limits are approached, the standard procedure is to abort the start by cutting off fuel flow and motoring the engine to purge residual heat and fuel. Prevention relies on thorough pre-start checks, ensuring optimal APU/GSU performance, adhering to manufacturer-specified fuel and ignition timing, and avoiding starts in adverse wind conditions. With proper training and adherence to flight manual limits, hot starts are detectable early, minimizing risks in both ground and in-flight restart scenarios.

Overview

Definition and contexts

A hot start is an abnormal condition during startup characterized by excessive heat buildup, leading to temperatures exceeding safe operational limits. In , this term applies to both reciprocating and turbine engines, where it denotes a failed or hazardous start sequence requiring immediate intervention to prevent damage. In reciprocating -injected engines, a hot start often manifests as caused by residual heat vaporizing in the lines and pump, disrupting liquid flow to the injectors and causing hard starting or incomplete ignition. For turbine engines, it involves overheating in the due to premature introduction before sufficient airflow is established, resulting in exhaust gas temperatures (EGT) surpassing manufacturer-specified thresholds—typically due to an excessively rich mixture. The term gained prominence with turbine engine development post-World War II. Unlike normal starts, which maintain critical temperatures—such as EGT below prescribed limits (e.g., approximately 600°C for certain small configurations during initial acceleration)—hot starts trigger abort procedures to avoid component degradation. Outside aviation, "hot start" refers to techniques in fields like (PCR) in , where it inhibits premature enzymatic activity; detailed discussions are covered in specialized scientific literature.

Historical development

The recognition of hot start issues in engines originated in the with the widespread use of air-cooled radial engines in post-World War I aircraft. Pilots documented frequent starting failures during hot restarts, largely due to in fuel systems, where elevated temperatures caused fuel to vaporize prematurely in lines and pumps, disrupting flow to the cylinders. These air-cooled designs, favored for their simplicity and cooling efficiency, amplified the problem in warm climates and after prolonged operation. The 1960s marked the shift to engines in commercial and jets, where hot starts manifested as excessive temperatures (EGT) during ignition, prompting the adoption of dedicated EGT for real-time monitoring. Systems from manufacturers like contributed to early suites that tracked temperatures, enabling pilots and engineers to abort starts exceeding limits. Regulatory frameworks evolved concurrently, with the FAA's 14 CFR Part 33, originally issued in the 1950s and revised in the 1960s, establishing airworthiness standards for aircraft engines including tests for starting reliability and overtemperature protection. The introduction of Full Authority Digital Engine Control () systems in the 1980s automated fuel scheduling and ignition sequencing, significantly mitigating hot start risks by optimizing airflow and fuel delivery during starts. Post-2000 advancements in digital controls integrate predictive algorithms and automated abort functions, further reducing occurrences through precise thermal management.

Reciprocating engines

Causes of hot starts

In reciprocating engines, commonly used in , a hot start refers to the difficulty in restarting the engine after a recent shutdown while it remains warm or hot, typically 15 minutes to 2 hours afterward. This issue primarily affects fuel-injected engines, such as those from Lycoming and Continental, where heat causes fuel in the lines and engine-driven pump to vaporize, creating that prevents from reaching the cylinders. Contributing factors include high ambient temperatures (e.g., above 90°F or 32°C), prolonged ground operations leading to heat soak in the , and fuel system vulnerabilities like unshielded lines or inadequate cooling airflow. In carbureted engines, cooling can exacerbate , while weak magneto sparks or fouled plugs reduce ignition reliability during low-speed cranking. The phenomenon is more pronounced in air-cooled engines without modern fuel return systems, as aviation gasoline () has a relatively low and resists proper metering at idle speeds.

Effects and detection

A hot start in a often results in the engine cranking without firing, producing black smoke from unburned fuel, or briefly catching and then quitting due to fuel starvation. Repeated attempts can overheat the starter motor, drain the battery, or lead to raw fuel accumulation, posing a risk in the engine compartment. In severe cases, prolonged cranking may cause excessive wear on bearings or valves from dry starts without . Detection relies on auditory and visual cues during startup: a steady tone from the electric indicates good liquid flow, while a wavering or surging tone suggests vapor presence. Pilots monitor for sluggish cranking or absence of ignition pops; if the engine runs raggedly after initial fire, it signals incomplete fuel distribution. Instrumentation like temperature (CHT) gauges, if available, can confirm heat soak exceeding 200°F (93°C) in cylinders.

Prevention procedures

Preventing hot starts in reciprocating engines involves cooling strategies and specific starting techniques to purge vapor from the . Post-shutdown, park the into the wind, open flaps or oil doors to promote , and avoid starts in direct . For fuel-injected engines, use the auxiliary boost pump to clear vapors: set to full lean or , full open, and run the pump on high for 20-45 seconds before attempting a normal start ( rich, cracked 1/4 inch). Maintain ignition systems through regular 500-hour magneto inspections and ensure resistance below 5,000 ohms. manuals, such as those for Lycoming IO-540 series, recommend priming for 2-4 seconds and avoiding prolonged motoring. Aftermarket devices like the SlickStart or iStart systems assist by boosting magneto voltage during starts, reducing vapor lock risks in older engines. Pilot training emphasizes checklist adherence and recognizing the "sour spot" of 15-45 minutes post-shutdown, significantly improving restart reliability.

Turbine engines

Causes of hot starts

In turbine engines, the primary cause of a hot start is the introduction of prior to achieving adequate rotational speed, typically below the manufacturer-specified minimum N2 (often around 20–25%), which prevents sufficient for proper and leads to excessively high temperatures in the section due to a rich fuel-air mixture. Contributing factors exacerbate this issue and include malfunctioning igniters that fail to ignite the promptly, insufficient starter airflow that slows compressor acceleration, and operator errors such as advancing the too early during the startup ; these are especially prevalent in dry motoring scenarios where the is cranked without to clear contaminants but is misjudged. The physics of a hot start stems from an imbalanced -air ratio due to limited airflow, which inadequately dilutes the and promotes high temperatures, thereby driving up temperatures (EGT) as hot spots form in the ; for example, this can result in turbine inlet temperatures exceeding manufacturer start limits (often 900–1100°C depending on the ), straining hot-section components. Such incidents are more common in older PT6A turboprop engines than in modern CFM56 jet engines, attributable to the manual control inputs required for PT6A startups, which increase the risk of sequencing errors, in contrast to the automated safeguards provided by full-authority digital control (FADEC) in CFM56 variants.

Effects and detection

During a hot start in a , the temperature (EGT) rapidly exceeds the manufacturer's limit, typically defined to safeguard against excessive heat buildup in the and sections. This over-temperature condition arises when fuel flow is excessive relative to airflow, leading to inadequate cooling within the engine core. Immediate risks include thermal damage to turbine blades, potentially causing or deformation, and degradation of combustion liners due to localized hot spots. If unchecked, such exceedances can result in severe component , with repair costs exceeding $100,000 in cases involving turbine overhaul. Over time, repeated or prolonged hot starts induce on high-pressure components, fostering microcracks and accelerated that compromise structural . Unaddressed damage from these events may propagate, increasing the likelihood of in-flight shutdowns or power loss. For instance, undetected hot start residues can contribute to uneven distribution, exacerbating in subsequent operations. Detection of a hot start relies primarily on real-time monitoring of EGT trends via cockpit instrumentation, where pilots observe for an abnormally rapid temperature rise signaling insufficient airflow or fuel imbalance. Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) systems augment this by automatically alerting crews to impending overlimits through warning lights or aural cues. If the EGT surpasses the and remains elevated, the start sequence is aborted by cutting fuel flow, preventing further escalation while the engine is motored to dissipate heat. This proactive identification is critical, as hot starts are one of the common start anomalies requiring maintenance intervention.

Prevention procedures

Standard procedures for preventing hot starts in turbine engines emphasize establishing adequate through the before introducing , thereby ensuring proper cooling during ignition. Operators typically motor the engine without until the core speed (N2) reaches at least 25%, or the maximum motoring speed (defined as no more than a 1% increase in N2 over 5 seconds, with a minimum of 20% N2), at which point is introduced via the start lever or fuel control switch. Following ignition, the throttle is advanced gradually while continuously monitoring temperature (EGT), inlet temperature (TIT), or inter-turbine temperature (ITT) to remain within manufacturer-specified limits; if temperatures trend excessively high, the start must be aborted immediately by moving the fuel control to , potentially allowing a second attempt after cooling. These steps mitigate risks from insufficient or premature scheduling, common precursors to hot starts. Automated systems, particularly Full Authority Digital Engine Control (), play a critical role in preventing hot starts by sequencing fuel introduction, ignition, and acceleration based on real-time sensor data, including engine temperatures and pressures updated up to 70 times per second. provides automatic protection by aborting abnormal starts if parameters like EGT exceed limits before self-sustaining speed (e.g., 50% N2), without requiring pilot intervention, thus eliminating many manual errors in fuel and . In such as the Airbus A320, equipped with on CFM56 or engines, the system offers ground-based autostart protection that passively monitors and aborts potential hot starts during manual sequences if EGT rises too rapidly. This automation has significantly reduced hot start incidents by enforcing precise engine limits and optimizing start sequences. Manufacturer best practices further enhance prevention through pre-start checks and operator . For instance, guidelines in their engine manuals recommend verifying supply from the (APU) or ground source to ensure sufficient compressor airflow, as low bleed pressure can contribute to hot starts; additional checks include confirming starter condition and ambient conditions affecting cooling. programs, often conducted via flight simulators, emphasize adherence to these checklists and recognition of early warning signs, such as sluggish acceleration, to build pilot proficiency in aborting incipient hot starts. The adoption of and refined procedures since the 1990s has contributed to overall reductions in engine start malfunctions, aligning with broader improvements in engine reliability and metrics.

Comparison across engine types

Hot starts in reciprocating engines primarily arise from fuel vaporization () in the hot induction system or fuel lines after shutdown, preventing from reaching the cylinders and resulting in hard starting due to fuel starvation, often requiring prolonged cranking and excessive battery drain from prolonged attempts. In contrast, hot starts in engines stem from combustion imbalances during ignition, typically due to excessive fuel flow relative to insufficient , which is critical for cooling the and sections; this can lead to severe overtemperatures and potential damage to blades or hot-section components. These differences highlight the reciprocating engine's reliance on intermittent cylinder cycles that tolerate lower needs, versus the 's continuous-flow design demanding rapid acceleration to self-sustain cooling. Despite these distinctions, hot starts in both engine types share common origins in residual heat soak-back following engine shutdown and errors in start sequencing, such as premature introduction before sufficient or starter engagement. Both necessitate vigilant temperature monitoring— or oil temperatures for reciprocating s, and or inter-turbine temperatures for turbines—to detect and abort problematic starts early, preventing escalation to engine damage or operational hazards. In hybrid designs like turboprops, which pair gas turbine powerplants with reduction gearing, hot start risks predominantly mirror those of pure engines due to the core starting sequence, but operational procedures in the integrate safeguards for both overtemperature limits and response to mitigate blended vulnerabilities.

Other engine start anomalies

In addition to hot starts, several other anomalies can occur during startup, including hung starts, cold starts, and false starts, each distinguished by distinct causes, symptoms, and responses that do not primarily involve overheating. A hung start primarily affects engines and is characterized by normal ignition followed by failure of the to accelerate toward idle speed, stalling at a low RPM due to insufficient starter power, low duct , or control issues. Unlike hot starts, which require immediate cutoff due to excessive EGT, hung starts involve RPM stagnation with potentially rising EGT; the standard response is to abort by cutting off flow if acceleration fails within the specified time, followed by cooldown and dry motoring per the . Mishandling, such as delaying cutoff, can lead to a subsequent hot start. Cold starts, more prevalent in reciprocating engines but also relevant to turbines in extreme low temperatures, result from high viscosity and poor atomization, causing sluggish or delayed ignition that requires extended motoring to clear excess and achieve stable operation. This contrasts sharply with hot starts, as cold starts pose risks of incomplete or flooding rather than overload, often mitigated by preheating or enriched mixtures in ambient conditions below 20°F. A occurs when ignition briefly activates without sustaining , typically due to premature starter disengagement or faults, and is observed in both reciprocating and engines without the heat buildup associated with hot starts. In such cases, unburned may accumulate, necessitating shutdown and dry motoring to prevent fire hazards, but the anomaly resolves without the high EGT limits that define hot start responses.

References

  1. https://skybrary.aero/articles/hot-start
  2. https://www.boldmethod.com/blog/lists/2022/09/five-jet-engine-start-malfunctions/
  3. https://pilotinstitute.com/turbine-engine-failed-starts-explained/
  4. https://www.aopa.org/training-and-safety/students/presolo/skills/starting-a-hot-engine
  5. https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/21_phak_glossary.pdf
  6. https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/technical-documents/technical-article/genomics/pcr/what-is-hot-start-pcr
  7. https://historyofavgas.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Chapter-04-Roaring-Twenties-1920-1930-Part-2.docx
  8. https://www.nasa.gov/history/SP-4219/Chapter1.html
  9. https://aerospace.honeywell.com/us/en/about-us/blogs/honeywell-a-z-alphabetical-journey-through-products-services-e-h
  10. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/chapter-I/subchapter-C/part-33
  11. https://taylorandfrancis.com/knowledge/Engineering_and_technology/Aerospace_engineering/FADEC/
  12. https://aerospace.honeywell.com/us/en/about-us/blogs/tfe731-engine-still-going-strong-at-50
  13. https://aviationconsumer.com/maintenance/hot-starting-science-and-art/
  14. http://www.associatedpilots.com/documents/HotStarts.pdf
  15. https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2012/december/pilot/art-of-the-start
  16. https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/74602/turbofan-engine-start-why-does-ignition-occur-so-early
  17. https://www.covingtonaircraft.com/media/what-is-a-pt6a-hot-start/
  18. https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/gasturbinespower/article/128/2/318/445068/Gas-Turbine-Engine-Durability-Impacts-of-High-Fuel
  19. https://helicoptermaintenancemagazine.com/article/eight-simple-ways-decrease-life-turbine-engine
  20. http://www.b737.org.uk/cfm56_soi.htm
  21. https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/09_phak_ch7.pdf
  22. https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/airplane_handbook/16_afh_ch15.pdf
  23. https://www.prattwhitney.com/en/blogs/airtime/2017/09/05/why-your-engine-needs-a-hot-section-inspection
  24. https://safetyfirst.airbus.com/prevention-of-egt-overlimit-events/
  25. https://pilotswhoaskwhy.com/2022/04/03/the-most-common-turbine-engine-starting-failures/
  26. http://www.b737.org.uk/powerplant.htm
  27. https://skybrary.aero/articles/full-authority-digital-engine-control-fadec
  28. https://www.prattwhitney.com/en/services/pwc-engine-services/digital-engine-health-management/other-services
  29. https://skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/1623.pdf
  30. https://skybrary.aero/sites/default/files/bookshelf/1622.pdf
  31. https://aviationsafetymagazine.com/features/cold-engine-starts/
  32. https://www.lycoming.com/content/operating-cold-weather
  33. http://dictionary.dauntless-soft.com/definitions/groundschoolfaa/False%2BStart
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