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A list of citations, the majority Ibid citations

Ibid. or ib.[1] is an abbreviation for the Latin word ibīdem, meaning 'in the same place', commonly used in an endnote, footnote, bibliography citation, or scholarly reference to refer to the source cited in the preceding note or list item. This is similar to idem, literally meaning 'the same', abbreviated id., which is commonly used in legal citation.[2]

Ibid. may also be used in the Chicago (name-date) system for in-text references where there has been a close previous citation from the same source material.[3][4] The previous reference should be immediately visible, e.g. within the same paragraph or page.

Some academic publishers now prefer that ibid. not be italicised, as it is a commonly found term.[5] Usage differs from style or citation guides as to whether ibid should be suffixed with a full stop. For example, Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities omits full stops and does not capitalise,[6] while The Economist's style guide uses a lower case starting letter with ending full stop.[7]

Example

[edit]
[1] E. Vijh, Latin for Dummies (New York: Academic, 1997), 23.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Ibid., 29.
[4] A. Alhazred, The Necronomicon (Petrus de Dacia, 1994).
[5] Ibid. 1, 34.

Reference 2 is the same as reference 1: E. Vijh, Latin for Dummies on page 23, whereas reference 3 refers to the same work but at a different location, namely page 29. Intervening entries require a reference to the original citation in the form Ibid. <citation #>, as in reference 5.

Cultural references

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See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ibid.

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Ibid. is an of the Latin adverb ibidem, meaning "in the same place," traditionally employed in , endnotes, or bibliographic to indicate that the citation refers to the source mentioned in the immediately preceding note. This usage allows scholars to avoid repeating full bibliographic details for consecutive to the same work, streamlining while maintaining precision. The term originates from classical Latin scholarship, where ibidem was used to denote location or context, and it became a standard abbreviation in European academic conventions during the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods as part of the broader adoption of Latin phrases in citation practices. In practice, when citing the same source on the same page, a simple "Ibid." suffices; for a different page, it is followed by a comma and the specific page number(s), such as "Ibid., 45." It is most prominently associated with the Chicago Manual of Style, particularly in its notes-and-bibliography system, though it also appears in the Oxford style for immediate repeats. However, ibid. is distinct from related abbreviations like id. (from idem, meaning "the same"), which refers to the same author but potentially a different work, and is more common in legal writing. In contemporary scholarship, the use of ibid. has declined due to recommendations against Latin abbreviations in favor of clearer English short forms, such as the author's last name and page number (e.g., "Smith 123"). The 17th and 18th editions of the Chicago Manual of Style explicitly discourage ibid. to avoid ambiguity, especially in digital formats where notes may not display sequentially, though it remains acceptable in limited cases. Major styles like MLA, APA, and CSE have largely abandoned it, opting instead for parenthetical in-text citations or short-title references to enhance and . Despite this shift, ibid. persists in disciplines and older publications, underscoring its historical role in facilitating efficient referencing in dense footnote-heavy texts.

Etymology and Origin

Latin Roots

The term "ibid." is an abbreviation derived from the Latin adverb ibīdem, which translates to "in the same place" or "likewise," indicating repetition or reference to a prior location without restating it. This word entered English scholarly usage in the mid-17th century, reflecting the enduring influence of classical Latin on academic writing. Etymologically, ibīdem breaks down into ibi ("there," denoting a specific location) combined with the enclitic -dem (an emphatic particle meaning "at that place" or "exactly there"), together emphasizing spatial or contextual sameness to avoid redundancy. This construction highlights the adverb's role in precise, economical expression, a hallmark of Latin rhetoric. In literature, ibīdem appears frequently in philosophical and legal texts to signify continuity or exact reference. For instance, employs it in his orations and treatises to link ideas or locations without repetition, as in discussions of legal proceedings where spatial details recur. Similarly, uses it in (Book IX, Chapter 3) to describe scenes involving repeated actions or places, such as "tum Flavius, cras, inquit, tabellarii, et ego ibidem has inter cenum," underscoring its utility in narrative and argumentative prose. and other historians also incorporate it in accounts of Roman events to denote "at the same spot," aiding concise historical narration in works like . These usages demonstrate how ibīdem facilitated clarity and brevity in ancient writings, particularly in legal argumentation and philosophical discourse where avoiding prolixity was valued. The abbreviation "ibid." first appears in printed scholarly works during the revival of classical languages, with the earliest attested instance in 1663 in the writings of natural philosopher , who used it to streamline references in scientific texts. This timing aligns with the broader 16th- and 17th-century resurgence of Latin in European printing, where abbreviations like "ibid." emerged to manage dense citations in burgeoning academic literature.

Adoption in Western Scholarship

While foundational practices for concise referencing emerged during the 16th-century humanist movement, when scholars sought to revive classical learning through critical editions of ancient texts, the specific abbreviation "ibid." was adopted in the . Humanists like integrated annotations and marginal references in their works to support textual emendations and theological arguments, marking an early shift from scriptural commentary to systematic source documentation. For instance, in his (1516), Erasmus employed detailed annotations to justify deviations from the , drawing on Greek manuscripts and patristic sources, which laid foundational practices for referencing repeated citations without full repetition. These efforts reflected the broader humanist emphasis on philological accuracy, influencing the evolution of Latin abbreviations like "ibidem" (shortened to "ibid.") for efficiency in scholarly discourse. By the 17th and 18th centuries, "ibid." became more standardized in bibliographies and footnotes, particularly through the output of British and French scholarly presses, where it facilitated concise referencing in dense historical and philological texts. Printers and editors adopted it to manage the growing volume of citations in erudite works, transitioning from to bottom-of-page notes for clarity in printed volumes. In British scholarship, figures like utilized such conventions in The History of the Decline and Fall of the (1776–1789), initially placing extensive references as endnotes before shifting to footnotes under critical influence, thereby popularizing "ibid." for successive citations. French presses similarly embraced it in encyclopedic projects, such as Pierre Bayle's Dictionnaire Historique et Critique (1697), where footnotes often expanded into substantive discussions supported by repeated source allusions via abbreviations. The Elzevir family of printers in the played a pivotal role in developing consistent footnote systems during this period, producing compact, scholarly editions of classical authors that incorporated Latin citation shortcuts like "ibid." to enhance and portability. Their Republics series (1620s–1650s) exemplified this by interweaving with referenced proofs, influencing European academic standards and promoting "ibid." as a tool for cross-referencing in theological and classical studies. This printer-driven innovation helped embed the abbreviation in the infrastructure of Western scholarship, bridging manuscript traditions to modern formats.

Definition and Primary Meaning

Core Definition

"Ibid." is an derived from the Latin term ibidem, meaning "in the same place," used in academic and scholarly citations to indicate that the source being referenced is identical to the one cited in the immediately preceding note. This convention allows writers to avoid repeating the full bibliographic details for successive references to the same work, thereby streamlining footnotes or endnotes while preserving clarity. The scope of "ibid." is strictly limited to consecutive citations without any intervening references to other sources; if another citation appears in between, a new full or shortened reference must be provided instead. Typographically, "ibid." is rendered in (not italicized), followed by a period as an , and if the page number differs from the previous citation, it is preceded by a . The primary conceptual purpose of "ibid." is to enhance conciseness in , particularly in works with frequent citations to the same source, ensuring without . In contrast to "id.," which is primarily employed in to refer to the immediately preceding authority, "ibid." is favored in nonlegal scholarly contexts. While "ibid." (from ibidem, meaning "in the same place") is specifically employed for consecutive citations to the identical source and page in footnotes or endnotes, it differs markedly from "" (from opere citato, meaning "in the work cited"), which refers to the same work but at a different page or section, typically when the citation is not immediately preceding. "" thus allows for intervening references to other sources, requiring the author's and a new page number for clarity, whereas "ibid." assumes no such interruptions and often omits the page if unchanged. In contrast, "loc. cit." (from loco citato, meaning "in the place cited") denotes the exact same passage or page in a previously cited work, even with intervening citations, but it is now largely obsolete in contemporary scholarship due to its potential for ambiguity without page specification. Modern style guides, such as , explicitly discourage "loc. cit." in favor of fuller citations or "ibid." for immediate repeats, emphasizing that "loc. cit." was historically used to pinpoint unaltered excerpts but has fallen out of favor for its redundancy. The abbreviation "id." or "" (Latin for "the same") primarily refers to the same author or source in immediate succession, without implying the exact page, and is more prevalent in than general ; for instance, system in U.S. legal citations mandates "id." for short-form repeats of the prior authority, distinguishing it from "ibid." by avoiding the latter entirely to prevent confusion over page references. In international academic contexts, "idem" may substitute for an author's name in consecutive notes by the same writer across works, but it does not encompass location details like "ibid.," limiting its scope to authorship continuity. These related terms have largely declined in usage since the mid-20th century, with "op. cit." and "loc. cit." deemed archaic by major guides like (17th edition), which phased them out to promote author-date short forms or explicit repeats; "ibid." persists longer owing to its streamlined application for sequential, unaltered references, though even it faces replacement in styles like APA and MLA.

Rules of Usage

Application in Footnotes and Endnotes

"Ibid." is employed in and endnotes within note-based citation systems to refer to the same source cited in the immediately preceding note, provided no intervening cite other sources. This usage streamlines repetitive references by avoiding the need to repeat full bibliographic details, but it strictly requires that the prior note contain only a single citation for clarity. In terms of formatting, "ibid." appears alone when the remains identical to the previous citation; if the page or pages differ, it is followed by a and the new locator, such as "ibid., 45–47." This convention ensures precise navigation within the source. For variations in editions or other elements beyond , additional adjustments may be necessary, as detailed in the section on handling page or edition variations. A key limitation is that "ibid." cannot serve as the initial citation for any source, necessitating a complete or shortened beforehand to establish the baseline. To maintain and prevent reader disorientation from excessive reliance on the term, best practices recommend limiting its application to consecutive instances and transitioning to author-short-title short forms after a few uses.

Handling Page or Edition Variations

When citing the same source consecutively without any changes in location or specifics, a plain "ibid." is used, referring exactly to the immediately preceding citation, including the same page or section. This maintains brevity while assuming continuity in the referenced material. If the consecutive citation refers to a different page or section within the same source, "ibid." is followed by a comma and the new page number or range, such as "Ibid., 45" or "Ibid., 40–42." This modification ensures precision without repeating the full bibliographic details, and it applies only to the immediately prior note. For multi-volume works, where the consecutive reference shifts to a different but remains the same overall source, "ibid." is supplemented with the and page details, for example, "Ibid., vol. 2, p. 100." This format accommodates variations in while preserving the abbreviation's efficiency for the core work. Such usage is common in scholarly citations of extensive series, as seen in historical and philosophical texts. However, if the consecutive citation involves a different edition of the work, "ibid." does not apply, as editions constitute distinct publications with potentially varying content, pagination, or details; a full citation must be provided instead. In non-consecutive scenarios or where any edition difference arises—even if the works are related—the abbreviation invalidates, requiring a complete to avoid . This rule upholds the principle that "ibid." strictly denotes the identical source instance from the prior note.

Guidelines by Citation Style

Chicago Manual of Style

The allows the use of "ibid." within its notes and bibliography system, though it discourages it in favor of shortened citations to improve clarity, as outlined in the 17th edition (2017), with the 18th edition (2024) continuing this preference while maintaining its acceptability in limited cases. This approach applies specifically to scholarly writing in fields like and literature, where dense footnote arrays are standard. Precise rules require a full citation for the initial reference to a source, followed by "ibid." alone if the subsequent note refers to the same page or pages, or "ibid., [new page number(s)]" if referencing different pages. "Ibid." should be capitalized only when it begins a note and is limited to immediately consecutive citations; if another source intervenes, a shortened form (such as author last name and page) must be used instead. In the 18th edition, this is further emphasized to avoid over-reliance on the term in electronic publications, where hyperlinks to notes can render "ibid." less intuitive. Exceptions to these rules include the complete avoidance of "ibid." in the author-date system, which relies on parenthetical in-text citations that are inherently concise. It should also not appear in running text or be overused in indexes, where full or short forms prevent reader confusion. The rationale for permitting "ibid." centers on enhancing readability in , where footnotes predominate and repetition of full citations can clutter notes, though the shift toward shortened forms in recent editions prioritizes precision and accessibility across formats.

Usage in Other Major Styles

In the American Psychological Association (APA) style, as outlined in the 7th edition (2020), the use of "ibid." is explicitly prohibited in both in-text citations and reference lists. Instead, repeated citations require the full author-date format, such as (Smith, 2020, p. 45), to maintain clarity and avoid abbreviations that could confuse readers unfamiliar with Latin terms. The (MLA) style in its 9th edition (2021) discourages "ibid." in in-text citations and prefers short titles or author-page combinations for subsequent references, such as (Smith 45). Footnotes or endnotes are optional in MLA but, when used, should employ full short forms without Latin abbreviations to enhance readability for a broad audience. Harvard referencing, an author-date system with variants adopted in many universities, generally forbids "ibid.," as emphasized in guidelines from institutions like (updated 2023) and the International Sociological Association. These styles prioritize consistent repetition of shortened author-date citations over brevity aids like "ibid." to ensure accessibility, particularly in academic fields where international readers may not recognize Latin . In legal citation styles, such as the Bluebook (21st edition, 2020), "ibid." is rare and largely supplanted by "id." for immediate subsequent references to the same source within footnotes. The Bluebook reserves "id."—short for "idem," meaning "the same"—for U.S. legal materials like cases and statutes, while "ibid." appears infrequently outside international or non-U.S. legal contexts, such as in some Commonwealth traditions. This restriction on "ibid." across APA, MLA, Harvard, and reflects a broader trend in sciences and social sciences toward eliminating Latin terms in citations to promote and reduce barriers for non-specialist readers. In contrast to the Chicago Manual of Style's more permissive approach, these styles emphasize self-contained, English-based references to support global .

Practical Examples

Basic Consecutive Citations

In basic consecutive citations, "ibid." serves as a to refer to the identical source mentioned in the immediately preceding note, provided there are no intervening citations and the preceding note cites only a single source. This traditional practice allows writers to avoid repeating the full or shortened form of the citation when referencing the same work in successive or endnotes. A straightforward example occurs when the first note includes a full citation, such as: 1. John Smith, A of Citations (New York: , 2020), 10. The next consecutive note, referring to the same page in the same source, can then simply state: 2. Ibid. If the third note shifts to a different page in that source, it reads: 3. Ibid., 12. Such usage is common in scenarios like a historical analysis, where a single —such as a or —is cited multiple times in a row for related arguments, initially without page variations, to maintain focus on the content rather than repetitive bibliographic details. The primary benefit of ibid. in these uninterrupted sequences is reducing redundancy and saving space in dense footnote arrays, particularly in humanities scholarship like literary criticism, where frequent references to a core text are routine. However, a frequent pitfall arises from misapplying ibid. following any interruption by another source, as it exclusively points to the immediate prior note; this can create ambiguity or error if the reference is intended for an earlier citation.

Complex Scenarios with Interruptions

In scenarios where citations are not strictly consecutive—such as when a reference to a different source interrupts the sequence—"ibid." cannot be applied to revert to the earlier, non-adjacent citation, as it strictly refers to the immediately preceding note. For instance, consider the following footnotes: (1) John Smith, The History of Citations (New York: , 2020), 15; (2) Jane Jones, Another Perspective (: Scholarly Press, 2019), 20; (3) Here, to cite Smith again, the note would read Smith, The History of Citations, 15 (or a further shortened form like Smith 2020, 15, if unambiguous in context), rather than "ibid.," which would erroneously point to Jones. When recovering a citation after multiple interruptions, the convention shifts to a shortened form that includes the author's surname, publication year, and relevant page number, unless the sequence resumes consecutively, at which point "ibid." may again apply to the immediate prior note. This approach ensures clarity and avoids ambiguity in extended footnote sequences, particularly in dense scholarly works. For multi-author works, "ibid." inherits the full details from the immediately preceding citation, encompassing all listed authors, but requires specification of a new page if applicable, such as "Ibid., 200." If the shortened form is used post-interruption and the work has multiple authors, the citation typically lists the first author followed by "et al." to maintain conciseness while referring to the original entry. In practical applications like legal briefs, where layered references to precedents or statutes are common, handling interruptions often favors short forms over "ibid." to prevent misreference, though "ibid." may still appear in academic legal scholarship adhering to style. Similarly, theological texts with intricate citations to commentaries or patristic sources rely on these recovery methods to navigate non-linear patterns, ensuring precise attribution amid frequent cross-references.

Historical Evolution and Modern Alternatives

Historical Development

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, "ibid." became ubiquitous in printed monographs, encyclopedias, and scholarly journals across the , serving as an essential tool for referencing the immediately preceding citation in footnotes and endnotes without repeating lengthy bibliographic information. This , derived from the Latin ibidem ("in the same place"), facilitated efficient in an era when footnotes were the dominant citation method in fields like , , and , aligning with the of that emphasized rigorous source attribution. As notes in his examination of scholarly practices, such conventions were integral to the footnote's role in establishing historical credibility and intellectual lineage during this period. In the mid-20th century, post-World War II shifts toward broader access to higher education and the of academia sparked criticism of Latin abbreviations like "ibid." for their perceived obscurity, which alienated non-specialist readers and emerging interdisciplinary scholars. This led to partial replacements by short-title systems in style guides, where subsequent citations used abbreviated author names and titles instead of Latin , promoting clarity and accessibility in expanding . The APA's first Publication Manual (1952) introduced the author-date citation system in the social sciences, which eliminated the need for footnote-specific abbreviations like "ibid." by using parenthetical in-text citations. Despite these American-led changes, "ibid." persisted in British scholarship through the 1980s, remaining a fixture in footnote-oriented styles favored by historical and literary journals, where traditions of dense endnote apparatus valued its conciseness. The evolution was also shaped by advances in printing technology: manual typesetting with hot metal type in the 19th and early 20th centuries incentivized brevity to minimize costs and space in footnotes, rendering "ibid." indispensable, while the advent of digital composition tools in the late 20th century allowed for straightforward repetition of full citations, diminishing its practical utility.

Contemporary Practices and Replacements

In the digital era, the use of "ibid." has significantly declined due to advancements in citation management software that automate the generation of shortened references, making the Latin abbreviation optional or obsolete in many workflows. Tools such as , in versions supporting the 17th edition and later, allow users to configure output styles that prioritize author-page short forms (e.g., "Smith 2020, 45") over "ibid." for subsequent citations, reducing reliance on manual entry and minimizing errors in repetitive referencing. Similarly, software, updated through 2024, enables customization of output styles to replace "ibid." with abbreviated citations, aligning with modern preferences for clarity in collaborative digital editing. This shift is driven by the need for machine-readable formats in online publishing, where software like these post-2020 iterations streamlines bibliography creation without Latin shorthand. Globally, "ibid." persists in select European humanities traditions but has been largely phased out in U.S. STEM disciplines. In the UK, the Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA) , in its 4th edition (2024), permits "ibid." sparingly for consecutive footnotes citing the same source and page, particularly in literary and historical scholarship, to maintain conciseness without ambiguity. However, German academic standards have moved away from it; the DIN 1505 framework, once common, was superseded by in 2013, which does not recommend "ibid." or equivalent abbreviations like "ebd." (ebenda) for in-text or note citations, favoring explicit short references instead. In contrast, U.S. STEM fields, adhering to styles like APA 7th edition or IEEE, explicitly prohibit "ibid.," opting for full or author-date repetitions to enhance accessibility in . Common replacements for "ibid." emphasize transparency and ease of navigation in contemporary scholarship. Author-page short citations, such as "Smith 2020, 10–12," have become standard in styles like notes-bibliography and MLA, providing self-contained references that avoid reader . In digital publications, hyperlinks directly embedded in citations—linking to full bibliographic details or DOIs—serve as an efficient substitute, particularly in online journals and open-access platforms where static footnotes are less practical. AI-assisted reference managers, including tools like Paperguide and Sourcely (updated 2025), generate citations in compliance with major styles while inherently avoiding Latin terms, using to suggest and format short forms based on context. These innovations prioritize global readability, especially for non-specialist audiences. Looking ahead, "ibid." may see a limited revival in specialized fields like , where traditional note-based styles in journals such as the Classical Journal retain it for dense textual analysis, but broader is likely due to demands for inclusive, hyperlink-friendly formats in accessible . As AI tools and digital platforms evolve, the emphasis on verifiable, machine-parsable citations will further marginalize such abbreviations, favoring systems that support interdisciplinary and international collaboration.

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