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Keyboard expression
Keyboard expression
Keyboard expression
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Keyboard expression is the ability of a keyboard musical instrument to change tone or other qualities of the sound in response to velocity, pressure or other variations in how the performer depresses the keys of the musical keyboard. Expression types include:

  • Velocity sensitivity—how fast the key is pressed
  • Aftertouch, or pressure sensitivity — the amount of pressure on a key, once already held down
  • Displacement sensitivity—distance that a key is pressed down

Keyboard instruments offer a range of expression types. Acoustic pianos, such as upright and grand pianos, are velocity-sensitive—the faster the key strike, the harder the hammer hits the strings. Baroque-style clavichords and professional synthesizers are aftertouch-sensitive—applied force on the key after the initial strike produces effects such as vibrato or swells in volume. Tracker pipe organs and some electronic organs are displacement-sensitive—partly depressing a key produces a quieter tone.

Velocity sensitivity

[edit]
The piano is an example of a velocity-sensitive keyboard instrument

The piano, being velocity-sensitive, responds to the speed of the key-press in how fast the hammers strike the strings, which in turn changes the tone and volume of the sound. Several piano predecessors, such as the harpsichord, were not velocity-sensitive like the piano. Some confuse pressure-sensitive with velocity-sensitive. To avoid this confusion, pressure sensitivity is often called aftertouch. The MIDI standard supports both velocity and aftertouch.

In general, only high-end electronic keyboards implement true pressure sensitivity, while most electronic keyboards support velocity sensitivity. Lower-end electronic keyboards designed for children or beginners may not have velocity sensitivity.

Pressure sensitivity or aftertouch

[edit]
A modern reproduction of a Baroque-era clavichord

The clavichord and some electronic keyboards also respond to the amount of force applied after initial impact—they are pressure-sensitive. This can be used by a skilled clavichord player to slightly correct the intonation of the notes when playing on a clavichord, and/or to play with a form of vibrato known as bebung. Unlike in a piano action, the tangent does not rebound from the string; rather, it stays in contact with the string as long as the key is held, acting as both the nut and as the initiator of sound. The volume of the note can be changed by striking harder or softer, and the pitch can also be affected by varying the force of the tangent against the string. When the key is released, the tangent loses contact with the string and the vibration of the string is silenced by strips of damping cloth.

By applying a rocking pressure up and down the key with the finger, a performer can slightly alter the vibrating length of the string itself, producing a vibrato quality known as bebung. While the vibrato on fretless string instruments such as the violin typically oscillates in pitch both above and below the root note, clavichord bebung only produces pitches above the note. Sheet music does not often explicitly indicate bebung. Composers generally let players apply bebung at their discretion. When sheet music does indicate bebung, it appears as a series of dots above or below a note; the number of dots indicates the number of finger movements.

2000s-era Yamaha digital keyboard

On electronic keyboards and synthesizers, pressure sensitivity is usually called aftertouch. The vast majority of such instruments use only channel aftertouch: that is, one level of pressure is reported across the entire keyboard, which affects either all notes pressed (even ones not being pushed into aftertouch) or a subset of the active notes in some instruments that allow this level of control. A minority of instruments have polyphonic aftertouch, in which each individual note has its own sensor for pressure that enables differing usage of aftertouch for different notes.

Aftertouch sensors detect whether the musician is continuing to exert pressure after the initial strike of the key. Some aftertouch sensors also measure that pressure's intensity. The aftertouch feature allows keyboard players to change the tone or sound of a note after it is struck, the way that singers, wind players, or bowed instrument players can do. On some keyboards, sounds or synth voices have a preset pressure sensitivity effect, such as a swell in volume (mimicking a popular idiomatic style of vocal performance with melodies) or the addition of vibrato.

On some keyboards—a good example of such an instrument being Yamaha's programmable synthesiser-workstation, the Yamaha EX5[1][2][3]—the player can select the effects to which aftertouch applies. This allows a performer to custom-tailor the effect that they desire. It may also facilitate the imitation of various non-keyboard instruments. For example, a keyboardist who wishes to imitate the sound of a heavy metal guitar solo could use a distortion guitar sound, and then set the aftertouch feature to apply a pitch bend to the note.

Displacement sensitivity

[edit]
A tracker pipe organ uses a mechanical action; as such, when the keys are only partly depressed, the volume and tone are changed.

A third form of sensitivity is displacement sensitivity. Displacement-sensitive keyboards are often found on organs. Most mechanical organs, and some electrically actuated organs, are displacement-sensitive, i.e., when a key is partially pressed, the corresponding note (pipe, reed, etc.) in the organ produces a different, quieter sound than when the key is fully pressed. In some organs, the pitch or tone frequency may also be altered. Small tabletop organs and accordions often respond similarly, with sound output increasing as keys are pressed further down. Even the small circular accompaniment ("one button chord") keys found on accordions and on some organs exhibit this phenomenon. Accordingly, some electrically actuated organs have retained this form of keyboard expression — a 34-rank organ in the Swiss village of Ursy is equipped with hi-tech features from Syncordia, including what some erroneously claim is the first non-mechanical action that directly controls the opening of a pipe organ's pallets in direct proportion to key movement, ostensibly combining the virtues of electric action with the intimate control of tracker action. However, Vincent Willis' 1884 patent Floating Lever pneumatic action also had this capability.[4]

Other more sophisticated sensitivity forms are common in organ keyboards. Both the Pratt Reed and Kimber Allen 61-key (5-octave) keyboards have provision for up to nine rails so they can sense various amounts of displacement, as well as velocity in various regimes of distance from the top to the bottom of the key travel of each key. Some modern instruments, such as the Continuum, a MIDI controller for keyboards, have extremely sophisticated human interface schemes that provide dynamic control in three dimensions. In principle, displacement can be differentiated to get velocity, but the converse is not entirely practical, without some amount of baseline drift. Thus a displacement sensing keyboard may be better at providing both organ and piano feel in a single keyboаrd controller.

Most digital pianos implement a displacement-sensitive keyboard, in order to simulate the sound-stopping length of the note after the key is released. On an acoustic piano, releasing a key after being partially depressed will result in a quieter, shorter sound stopping. The displacement-sensitive keyboard on a digital piano were designed to simulate the similar effect.

Other types

[edit]

Acoustic pianos have expression pedals that change the response or tone of the instrument.

On small upright pianos, the soft pedal (also called una corda or half-blow pedal) moves the hammers closer to the strings. On grand pianos, the soft pedal moves the hammers sideways so each hammer strikes only part of its string group.

The sustain pedal (also called damper pedal) prevents individual key dampers from lifting when the player releases the key. All notes played with the sustain pedal ring until the player releases the sustain pedal (or until the note completely decays). With the dampers not applied, octave, fifth, and other overtones vibrate sympathetically, producing a richer sound. Most electronic keyboards also have a sustain pedal that holds notes and chords, but only high-end digital keyboards reproduce the sympathetic vibration effect.

Electromechanical keyboards and electronic keyboards offer a range of other expression devices. Electromechanical keyboards such as the Hammond organ offer additional means of keyboard expression by modifying the starting, stopping, or speed of the rotating Leslie speaker or by engaging a variety of vibrato or chorus effects. Digital "clones" of Hammond organs offer recreations of these effects, along with other effects. The VK-9 digital organ, for example, offers a proximity-sensitive detector that triggers the Leslie speaker, a ring modulator, or other effects.

Some effect pedals used with electromechanical keyboards such as the Fender Rhodes electric piano or digital keyboards respond to loudness and so, indirectly, to key velocity. Examples include overdrive pedals, which produce a clean sound for softer notes, and a distortion effect for louder notes—and fixed wah-wah pedals that filter the audio signal based on loudness.

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Keyboard expression

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Keyboard expression is the capacity of musical keyboard instruments to vary the volume, tone, and other sonic characteristics of notes in direct response to the performer's touch, including the with which keys are struck, the applied after initial contact (aftertouch), and additional parameters such as key tilt or displacement. This feature enables nuanced dynamic control, distinguishing expressive keyboards from earlier instruments like the , which produced uniform volume regardless of touch. While the clavichord, dating back to the 14th century, offered early touch sensitivity for dynamic variation albeit with limited volume, the modern development of keyboard expression traces back to the early 18th century, when Italian instrument maker Bartolomeo Cristofori invented the pianoforte around 1700, introducing a hammer mechanism that allowed players to produce both soft (piano) and loud (forte) sounds by varying the force of key strikes—a revolutionary advancement over the fixed-volume harpsichord and the more limited clavichord. Cristofori's design, refined over subsequent decades by makers like Gottfried Silbermann and later through innovations such as the double escapement action, established dynamic expression as a core element of keyboard performance, profoundly influencing composers from Mozart to Beethoven who exploited its capabilities for emotional depth in music. In modern contexts, keyboard expression extends to electronic and digital instruments, where velocity sensitivity—measuring the speed of key depression—typically controls initial note loudness, while aftertouch (channel or polyphonic) modulates sustained parameters like or . Expression pedals, foot-operated controllers connected via or analog jacks, further enhance this by providing real-time adjustment of volume, filter cutoff, or modulation during , commonly used in synthesizers, organs, and digital pianos to mimic orchestral swells or add continuous expressivity. These technologies, standardized in protocols like since the , democratize expressive playing across genres from classical to electronic music, allowing performers to convey subtle nuances essential to musical interpretation.

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles

Keyboard expression refers to the capability of a to dynamically vary sound characteristics, such as volume and , in response to the performer's touch dynamics, encompassing factors like the speed of key depression, applied , and key position. This functionality enables performers to impart subtle variations in musical output directly through physical interaction with the instrument, simulating the nuanced responses of traditional acoustic keyboards. Primary mechanisms include (speed of key strike), (force after initial contact), and displacement (key position during play). The basic principles of keyboard expression stem from efforts to replicate the natural acoustic behaviors of instruments like , where the force and manner of key actuation directly influence strike intensity on strings, thereby affecting and tonal quality. In contrast, non-expressive keyboards, such as early organs, produce sound at a fixed volume determined by mechanical stops and air pressure, independent of touch variation. This expressive design allows for real-time control over sonic elements, bridging the gap between mechanical action and artistic intent in performance. Key terminology in keyboard expression is standardized through the Musical Instrument Digital Interface () protocol, where note-on —a measure of key strike speed—is quantized into values ranging from 0 (no velocity) to 127 (maximum velocity). These values translate performer input into digital signals that modulate parameters like and in synthesizers or virtual instruments, providing a universal framework for expression across electronic keyboards. The importance of keyboard expression lies in its role in facilitating nuanced performances that convey emotional depth, as touch-sensitive variations enable performers to articulate dynamics and phrasing, fostering a deeper connection between and . By allowing subtle control over sound evolution, it enhances the interpretive possibilities in music, transforming mechanical input into evocative artistic output.

Historical Context

The , emerging in the 14th century, marked the earliest known capable of dynamic expression through pressure sensitivity, where the force applied to the keys directly influenced the volume and tone by varying the tension on struck strings via metal tangents. This intimate control contrasted sharply with the , which dominated from the 15th to 18th centuries but offered fixed volume levels due to its plucking mechanism, limiting expressive nuance and prompting innovations for greater touch responsiveness. In response, Italian harpsichord maker invented the around 1700, introducing hammer action that allowed volume variation based on key velocity, laying the foundation for modern expression. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, piano design advanced significantly to enhance velocity-based expression, with key innovations like Sébastien Érard's 1821 double escapement action enabling faster note repetition and finer dynamic control, which became standard in grand pianos by the era's end. These refinements peaked in the late , improving overall action responsiveness and tonal range to meet the demands of Romantic composers. Concurrently, pipe organs evolved with dynamic control elements; 19th-century swell boxes allowed shading of volume via foot pedals, though keyboard touch remained non-velocity-sensitive until electronic adaptations. The electronic era began in the mid-1970s with synthesizers incorporating aftertouch for sustained pressure expression, exemplified by the , released in 1976, which featured a pressure-sensitive keyboard for real-time modulation of parameters like filter cutoff. This innovation standardized velocity and aftertouch transmission through the protocol, adopted industry-wide in 1983, enabling interoperability among electronic keyboards and facilitating nuanced performance data exchange. In the , polyphonic aftertouch—allowing independent pressure control per key—gained prominence in premium controllers, with ' Komplete Kontrol S-series models from the onward integrating it for enhanced expressivity in software instruments. Experimental instruments like the , developed in research during the 2000s, further explored displacement sensitivity, where finger position in water jets modulates tone through , offering novel tactile expression beyond traditional keys.

Primary Expression Mechanisms

Velocity Sensitivity

Velocity sensitivity in keyboard instruments measures the speed or force of the initial key depression, which determines the intensity of the note's onset. In the protocol, this is quantified as note-on velocity, a discrete value from 0 to 127, where 0 produces no sound (effectively a note-off) and 127 represents the maximum force or speed. This mechanism mimics the natural response of acoustic instruments, translating the performer's touch into dynamic variation at the moment of activation. The primary effects of velocity sensitivity include control over , , and attack characteristics. Higher velocities produce greater for louder playback, while also influencing by emphasizing higher harmonics for a brighter tone; for instance, in , a soft key strike results in a mellow as the contacts the strings gently, whereas a hard strike yields a bright, resonant tone due to increased high-frequency content. The attack phase benefits similarly, with faster depressions generating a sharper initial transient, such as the brief "chink" from the impacting the strings, enabling expressive forte-piano contrasts essential to . Implementations vary between acoustic and digital keyboards. In acoustic pianos, velocity arises mechanically from the key's depression accelerating the toward the strings, with faster motion imparting more energy for dynamic response; modern MIDI-equipped acoustic pianos add electronic sensors to capture this for digital output. Digital keyboards typically employ dual sensors per key—often optical or mechanical contacts positioned at the key's rest and bottom positions—to calculate by timing the interval between activations, though advanced models may use accelerometers or transducers for finer detection. This feature offers key advantages, including intuitiveness for beginners by replicating the familiar touch for natural dynamic control, and has become a standard in most keyboards following MIDI's widespread adoption in the early . However, its main limitation is that it captures only a snapshot at note onset, providing no sustained modulation during the note's duration—unlike sensitivity (aftertouch), which allows ongoing expression.

Pressure Sensitivity (Aftertouch)

Pressure sensitivity, commonly known as aftertouch, refers to the continuous control exerted by applying additional force to a key after it has been initially pressed and reached the bottom of its travel. This mechanism allows performers to modulate various sound parameters in real time, such as depth, filter , or swells, adding expressive depth beyond the initial note attack. There are two primary subtypes of aftertouch: channel aftertouch, also called monophonic aftertouch, and polyphonic aftertouch. Channel aftertouch measures the average pressure across all currently held keys and transmits a single value that affects all notes uniformly; in MIDI, it is implemented as a channel pressure message with status byte 0xD0 followed by a pressure value (0-127), often mapped to controller number 128 in some systems. Polyphonic aftertouch, in contrast, detects and transmits pressure independently for each key, enabling note-specific modulation; it uses MIDI polyphonic key pressure messages with status byte 0xA0, followed by the note number and pressure value (0-127), making it far more expressive but less common due to hardware complexity. However, adoption has increased since the early 2020s, with several new MIDI controllers and synthesizers, such as the Korg Keystage (2022), ROLI Piano (2025), and Sequential Fourm (2025), incorporating polyphonic aftertouch to enhance expressivity. The effects of aftertouch enhance sustain and nuance in performances, particularly in synthesizers where it can simulate organic articulations like string swells or breaths by dynamically adjusting parameters during note sustain. Implementation typically involves sensors placed beneath the keys to detect post-bottoming . Common types include force-sensitive resistors (FSRs), which vary resistance under , and conductive rubber strips that change conductivity when compressed; piezoelectric sensors are also used in some designs for their sensitivity to . For example, the from 1983 employs channel aftertouch using a shared pressure strip under the keys, while the modern Seaboard utilizes a continuous surface with an FSR matrix to achieve polyphonic aftertouch across all "keywaves." Aftertouch significantly enhances by providing ongoing control that complements initial sensitivity for a fuller . However, it requires deeper keybeds to allow sufficient travel for pressure application after the initial strike, and the polyphonic variant demands more sensors and processing power, increasing cost and rarity.

Advanced Expression Techniques

Displacement Sensitivity

Displacement sensitivity in keyboard instruments modulates sound characteristics based on the depth of key depression, typically ranging from 0% to 100% of the key's path, independent of depression speed or applied . This mechanism allows for continuous or threshold-based control of parameters such as and , where partial key positions produce subtler outputs compared to full depression. In mechanical systems, the key's position directly influences the degree of or mechanism opening, altering or excitation without relying on dynamic pressure variations. Displacement sensitivity is also common in accordions, where bellows pressure and reed activation vary with key position. The primary effects include gradual volume swells and shifts, enabling performers to achieve soft onsets or layered dynamics during note initiation. For instance, in pipe organs, intermediate key positions constrict wind supply to the pipes, resulting in a quieter, more languid tone that builds progressively to full upon complete depression, facilitating expressive phrasing like gentle crescendos. This contrasts with binary on/off responses in many keyboards, offering a pathway for micro-dynamic control that enhances articulation without abrupt attacks. Implementation often involves mechanical linkages in acoustic instruments or electronic sensors in digital ones to track position precisely. Traditional examples use simple thresholds, such as halfway depression triggering a softer via partial valve opening, while advanced setups employ potentiometers, displacement sensors, or optical encoders for real-time monitoring with resolutions down to 0.01 mm. In experimental designs like the , key displacement proportionally controls water jet intensity, yielding continuous variations in acoustic power and harmonic content across the full travel range. Displacement sensitivity has been a feature of mechanical tracker-action pipe organs since the 18th century, particularly in smaller instruments where direct wooden linkages allowed subtle wind modulation through partial key depression. However, in larger 19th-century examples, excessive inertia often limited this expressivity, and the feature waned with the adoption of pneumatic and electric actions in the early 20th century. In modern contexts, it appears in hybrid digital organs and research prototypes from the 2020s, where position-sensing technology revives partial-press capabilities in mechatronic systems, often integrated with haptic feedback for authentic tactile response. Key advantages include the ability to layer expression through partial engagements, supporting intricate control in playing without full commitment to a note, as seen in requiring fluid swells. However, limitations arise from mechanical resistance in traditional designs, which can fatigue performers and vary unpredictably across instruments, while digital implementations demand precise to avoid latency, rendering it less common than velocity-based systems.

Release Velocity

Release velocity refers to the speed at which a key is lifted or released after being pressed on a , capturing the dynamics of the note's termination phase. In protocol, this is encoded as the value (ranging from 0 to 127) in the Note Off message (status byte 8n, where n is the MIDI channel, followed by the note number and release ). Unlike note-on , which is more universally standardized and utilized, release implementation remains less consistent across devices and software, often defaulting to a fixed value like 64 or 0 if not supported. This mechanism extends velocity sensitivity principles—typically measured via time differences between sensor contacts during key depression—to the release phase, using reversed sensor activation to detect lift-off speed. Keyboards with triple-sensor actions, such as those in many modern digital pianos, employ two upper sensors for precise release timing: the interval between their disengagement determines the velocity value, enabling nuanced control over note decay. For example, an abrupt key release (high release velocity) can trigger a sharp, percussive decay, while a gradual lift (low velocity) might extend the sustain for smoother legato transitions. In performance, release velocity modulates effects like envelope release time, reverb tail length, or sample layering for staccato versus sustained articulations, adding expressivity to virtual instruments. Premium MIDI controllers, such as Roland's RD series (e.g., RD-2000 from the late 2010s), integrate this via advanced keybeds that transmit variable release velocity, allowing performers to shape note endings dynamically. The primary advantage lies in enhancing realism for sampled acoustic instruments; for instance, higher release velocities can amplify piano damper or key-off noises, simulating the mechanical thump of a real 's action, as implemented in high-fidelity virtual piano libraries. However, adoption is limited: many synthesizers and DAWs ignore or inadequately process release velocity, rendering it underutilized despite its potential for detailed . In production as of 2025, release velocity continues to gain traction with DAW updates, including enhanced support in 11 (2021) and subsequent versions like Live 12 (2022), enabling mapping to parameters like filter cutoff or sample triggers in the editor, facilitating its use in envelope shaping and hybrid synthesis workflows.

Applications and Implementations

In Acoustic Instruments

In acoustic keyboard instruments, expression arises primarily from mechanical interactions governed by the physics of , air flow, and key displacement, allowing performers to vary dynamics and through touch and auxiliary controls. These mechanisms differ from digital simulations by relying on inherent properties and structural designs rather than electronic sensors. The exemplifies sensitivity through the - impact, where the speed of the key depression determines the hammer's upon striking the strings, directly influencing the initial energy transfer and resulting . This interaction produces traveling pulses along the string that reflect at terminations, shaping the tone's and decay. However, aftertouch—continued pressure after the initial strike—is limited due to the fixed action mechanism, which prevents sustained modulation once the hammer escapes the key. In the , direct pressure sensitivity enables nuanced expression as the remains in contact with the string after striking, allowing finger pressure to alter tension and thus modulate pitch and continuously during the note. This intimate player-instrument interface supports subtle techniques like bebung, where varying pressure creates vibrato-like effects. velocity also contributes to initial excitation, but the sustained contact distinguishes the clavichord's responsiveness from more detached actions. The employs displacement sensitivity via swell shades, which are adjustable louvers enclosing pipe divisions; their position, controlled by a pedal or , varies air flow to modulate overall volume and create crescendos or diminuendos across sections. In tracker actions, some velocity sensitivity affects the attack transient, as faster key motion opens valves more rapidly, influencing the onset sharpness though not the sustained loudness, which depends on fixed wind pressure. The offers minimal expression, with its pluck producing a fixed dynamic level largely insensitive to touch velocity or pressure, as the motion delivers consistent excitation. This limitation in dynamic control contributed to the piano's in the early , as composers and performers sought greater nuance in capabilities to meet evolving expressive demands. Pedals serve as auxiliary expression tools across these instruments, particularly in the piano, where the lifts dampers to allow and prolong decay for effects, enhancing harmonic richness. The una corda ( shifts the action to strike fewer strings or reduces effective velocity in upright designs, softening and volume without altering key touch directly.

In Electronic and Digital Keyboards

In electronic and digital keyboards, expression is primarily facilitated through the Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) protocol, which standardizes the transmission of performance data such as velocity during note-on and note-off events (values ranging from 0 to 127) to control dynamic intensity. Pressure sensitivity is supported via channel aftertouch (a monophonic message on status byte 0xD0, applying uniform pressure across all notes on a channel) or polyphonic aftertouch (per-note pressure on status byte 0xA0, with note number and pressure value). Displacement sensitivity, which tracks key position during depression, lacks a dedicated MIDI standard and is typically implemented using custom continuous controller (CC) messages, such as CC 74 for filter cutoff or other assignable parameters, allowing for nuanced modulation beyond basic velocity. Hardware implementations in synthesizers and controllers enhance these MIDI capabilities for expressive play. For instance, the workstation, introduced in the 2010s, features a semi-weighted or hammer-action keyboard with sensitivity and aftertouch support, enabling real-time parameter adjustments like filter sweeps or volume modulation tied to key pressure. Similarly, the KeyLab series, updated in the 2020s, incorporates release--sensitive keys that capture the speed of key release (transmitted via note-off in MIDI), alongside aftertouch for sustained expression, and allows firmware-based customization of curves to match user touch. Digital enhancements in software further simulate and extend acoustic-like expression through (VST) instruments. Piano emulations, such as Spectrasonics Keyscape, include adjustable velocity curves that remap incoming velocity values to output curves, ensuring consistent dynamic response across different controllers by scaling soft-to-loud playing into appropriate sample layers or synthesis parameters. interfaces in workstations (DAWs) or hybrid controllers also map additional gestures, like swipes, to CC for expressive effects such as morphing, building on core keyboard data. Challenges in these systems include latency during wireless MIDI transmission and the need for precise calibration of sensitivity. Bluetooth MIDI, while compliant with class specifications for low-latency data packets (typically under 5 ms in optimal conditions), can introduce variable delays due to environmental interference or connection intervals, prompting recommendations for wired USB alternatives in performance-critical setups. Keyboard sensitivity calibration requires adjusting curves via controller software or DAW MIDI processors to compensate for hardware variations, ensuring even response across keys and preventing clipped dynamics (e.g., maximum velocity at 127 not fully utilized). As of 2025, future trends incorporate AI-assisted expression in hybrid instruments to augment traditional . Devices like the Airwave, integrated with Seaboard or keyboards, use spatial AI via cameras to track hand gestures beyond key contact, translating movements into additional dimensions for enhanced and spatial effects, expanding expressive possibilities without altering core keyboard mechanics.

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  59. https://www.korg.com/us/products/synthesizers/kronos3/specifications.php
  60. https://www.arturia.com/products/hybrid-synths/keylab-mk3/overview
  61. https://www.spectrasonics.net/support/knowledgebase/article/how%2Bdo%2Bi%2Bset%2Bvelocity%2Bcurve%2Bsettings%2Bin%2Bkeyscape%253F/60/21
  62. https://www.cme-pro.com/the-truth-about-bluetooth-midi/
  63. https://kurzweil.com/2021/12/07/adjusting-the-master-touch-sensitivity/
  64. https://roli.com/us/product/airwave-create
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