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An illustration depicting Coel from a 15th-century Welsh-language version of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae

Coel (Old Welsh: Coil), also called Coel Hen (Coel the Old) and King Cole, is a figure prominent in Welsh literature and legend since the Middle Ages. Early Welsh tradition knew of a Coel Hen, a c. 4th-century leader in Roman or Sub-Roman Britain and the progenitor of several kingly lines in Yr Hen Ogledd (the Old North), a region of the Brittonic-speaking area of what is now northern England and southern Scotland.

Later medieval legend told of a Coel, apparently derived from Coel Hen. He was said to be the father of Saint Helena of Constantinople and through her the grandfather of Roman Emperor Constantine the Great. Although it is likely to be erroneously identifying Saint Helen of Caernarfon.

Other similarly named characters may be confused or conflated with the Welsh Coel. The legendary "King Coel" is sometimes supposed to be the historical basis for the popular nursery rhyme "Old King Cole", but this has been said to be unlikely.[1]

Name

[edit]

Coel's name was rendered "Coil" in Old Welsh. Rare or unique as a Welsh name, its origin has long been seen as uncertain.[2] John T. Koch has argued that it is simply the common noun which in Modern Welsh has the form coel, meaning "belief, credence; confidence, reliance, trust, faith" (and the secondary meaning "omen"), derived from Proto-Celtic *kaylo- "omen" and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *keh2ilo- "whole, healthy; blessed with good omen".[3][4][5] In Koch's view, "these semantic and etymological aspects allow that Coil could be a legendary, or even a mythological, founder" of the dynasties that bear his name rather than a historical figure.[6]: 77 

It may be the same as the Coel is often named as "Coel Hen", Hen being an epithet meaning "old" (i.e., "Coel the Old"). The genealogies give him an additional epithet or patronym, Godebog (Old Welsh: Guotepauc), meaning "Protector" or "Shelterer".[7][6]: 77  His name is thus sometimes given as "Coel Godebog" or "Coel Hen Godebog".[3] However, some of the Harleian genealogies list Godebog as Coel's father's name.[8] Geoffrey of Monmouth rendered the name as both Coel and Coillus in his Historia Regum Britanniae. Some modern authors render it as "Cole".[9]

Context and evidence

[edit]

The historian Ben Guy has commented that "Coel Hen's role in medieval texts is solely legendary; there is no merit whatsoever in any attempt to assign him some historically significant role in late Roman Britain, as many over the years [...] have fruitlessly attempted to do".[10] Coel Hen appears in the Harleian genealogies and the later pedigrees known as the Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd (The Descent of the Men of the North) at the progenitor of several post-Roman royal families of the Hen Ogledd.[7] His line, collectively called the Coeling, included such noted figures as Urien, king of Rheged; Gwallog, perhaps king of Elmet; the brothers Gwrgi and Peredur; and Clydno Eiddin, king of Eidyn or Edinburgh.[7][11] The poem Y Gododdin mentions some enmity between the "Sons of Godebog", possibly a reference to the Coiling, and the heroes who fought for the Gododdin at the Battle of Catraeth.[8][11]

As an ancestor figure, he compares to Dyfnwal Hen, who is likewise attributed with founding kingly lines in the Hen Ogledd. Hector Boece and Ayrshire folklore both state that Coel and his entire army perished in the Battle of Coilsfield. According to Welsh tradition the region of Kyle was named for Coel, and a mound at Coylton in Ayrshire was regarded as his tomb.[12] Projections back from dated individuals suggest that Coel Hen would have lived around AD 350–420, during the time of the Roman departure from Britain.[11] In his book The Age of Arthur, historian John Morris suggested Coel may have been the last of the Roman Duces Brittanniarum (Dukes of the Britons) who commanded the Roman army in northern Britain, and split his lands among his heirs after his death.[13] However, Morris's book has been widely criticized.[14] It has been suggested that Coel was appointed governor of northern Britain, ruling from Eburacum (York), by Magnus Maximus.[15]

Colchester legend

[edit]

In the twelfth century, a story arose claiming that Colchester in Essex was named after a man called Coel, who was the father of Saint Helena, and therefore the grandfather of Constantine the Great. Though not initially associated with Coel Hen, the two Coels began to be conflated in Welsh scholarship from the fifteenth century.[10] The legend originated from a folk etymology indicating that Colchester was named for Coel (supposedly from "Coel" and "castrum", producing "fortress of Coel"). However, the city was actually known as Colneceaster until the n was dropped in around the 10th century; its name likely comes from the local River Colne.[16][17]

Around the same time, a further development of this legend that King Coel of Colchester was the father of Empress Saint Helena, and therefore the grandfather of Constantine the Great, appeared in Henry of Huntingdon's Historia Anglorum and Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae.[18][19][20] The passages are clearly related, even using some of the same words, but it is not clear which version was first. Henry appears to have written the relevant part of the Historia Anglorum before he knew about Geoffrey's work, leading J. S. P. Tatlock and other scholars to conclude that Geoffrey borrowed the passage from Henry, rather than the other way around.[21][22] The source of the claim is unknown, but may have predated both Henry and Geoffrey. Diana Greenway proposes it came from a lost hagiography of Helena;[21] Antonia Harbus suggests it came instead from oral tradition.[23]

Geoffrey's largely legendary Historia Regum Britanniae expands upon Henry's brief mention, listing Coel as a King of the Britons following the reign of King Asclepiodotus.[24] In the Historia, Coel grows upset with Asclepiodotus's handling of the Diocletianic Persecution and begins a rebellion in his duchy of Caer Colun (Colchester). He meets Asclepiodotus in battle and kills him, thus taking the kingship of Britain upon himself. Rome, apparently, is pleased that Britain has a new king, and sends senator Constantius Chlorus to negotiate with him. Afraid of the Romans, Coel meets Constantius and agrees to pay tribute and submit to Roman laws as long as he is allowed to retain the kingship. Constantius agrees to these terms, but Coel dies one month later.[24] Constantius marries Coel's daughter, Helena, and crowns himself as Coel's successor. Helena subsequently gives birth to a son who becomes the Emperor Constantine the Great, giving a British pedigree to the Roman imperial line.[25]

Local tradition came to suggest that Coel was responsible for some of the ancient buildings in Colchester; a public conduit in the High Street was named "King Coel's Pump", the Balkerne Gate in the Roman town walls was known as "King Coel's Castle" and the remains of the Temple of Claudius over which Colchester Castle was built were called "King Coel's Palace".[26]

[edit]

There is an old story told in the North about Coel's last campaign. What is now Scotland was originally inhabited by both Brythonic and Pictish tribes. It was during Coel's time that the Scotti tribe began to settle the Western coast around Argyle. Coel, fearing that these Northern peoples would unite against his domain south of Hadrian's Wall, sent raiding parties across his northern border to stir up discord between them. The plan, however, backfired for the Picts and the Scots were not taken in. Coel merely succeeded in pushing the two even closer together, and they began to attack the Brittonic Kingdom of Strathclyde. Coel declared all out war and moved north to expel the invaders. The Picts and Scots fled to the hills ahead of Coel's army, who eventually set up camp at what became Coylton alongside the Water of Coyle (Ayrshire). For a long time, the British were triumphant, while the Scots and Picts starved. Desperate for some relief, however, the enemy advanced an all-or-nothing attack on Coel's stronghold. Coel and his men were taken by surprise, overrun and scattered to the winds. It is said that Coel wandered the unknown countryside until he eventually got caught in a bog at Coilsfield (in Tarbolton, Ayrshire) and drowned. Coel was first buried in a mound there before being removed to the church at Coylton. The year was about AD 420. After his death, tradition says that Coel's Northern kingdom was divided between two of his sons, Ceneu and Gorbanian.[27]

Notes

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Bibliography

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Coel Hen

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Coel Hen (Old Welsh: Coil Hen, meaning "Coel the Old") was a semi-legendary British leader in the sub-Roman period, circa the late 4th to early 5th century AD, who appears in medieval Welsh genealogies as the progenitor of multiple royal dynasties across northern Britain (known as the Hen Ogledd) and certain Welsh kingdoms. Recognized in sources such as the Harleian Genealogies (manuscripts from the 10th–12th centuries), he is depicted as a unifying ancestral figure linking diverse Brittonic lineages, including those of rulers in regions like Cumbria, Rheged, and Gwynedd, though direct historical evidence for his existence remains elusive and retrospective in nature. Recent scholarship views the Coeling—his descendants' collective—as a retrospective construct linking diverse, genealogically unrelated lineages rather than a unified historical dynasty. His name and epithet suggest an elder statesman or chieftain role amid the collapse of Roman authority in Britain, potentially tied to military leadership along the northern frontiers. Coel Hen's descendants, collectively termed the Coeling, feature prominently in early medieval records, such as the Annales Cambriae, where events involving figures from northern British polities, potentially linked to Coeling traditions, are recorded in battles against Anglo-Saxon incursions in the late 6th century, such as the (573 AD) and the death of Gwrgi and (580 AD). These genealogies, preserved in Welsh manuscripts, served to legitimize later rulers by tracing their authority back to this foundational ancestor, reflecting cultural and political identities forged in response to Northumbrian expansion and internal fragmentation during the 6th–7th centuries. Archaeological and toponymic evidence, such as fortified sites in the region (e.g., Papcastle), aligns with narratives of Coeling strongholds, supporting a historical kernel of elite continuity from Roman provincial structures. In , Coel Hen is popularly linked to the character "," a merry calling for his fiddlers three, though scholars consider this association anachronistic and derived from later medieval embellishments rather than authentic tradition; the itself dates to the and likely conflates Coel with other legendary Coles, such as a supposed of . Later legends, including those in Geoffrey of Monmouth's (12th century), portray Coel as a who granted sovereignty to his son-in-law, but these are considered fictional amplifications without basis in earlier sources. Overall, Coel Hen embodies the blurred line between history and myth in early Brittonic narratives, symbolizing resilience and kinship amid the turbulent transition from Roman rule to early medieval kingdoms.

Name and Etymology

Linguistic Origins

The name "Coel," rendered as "Coil" in Old Welsh, derives from the Middle Welsh coel, which carries meanings such as "belief," "omen," or "divination." This term traces back to Old Welsh coil(i)ou, denoting "omens," and is attested in contexts like augury or prophetic interpretation. Linguistically, "Coel" originates from Proto-Brythonic *koɨl, stemming from Proto-Celtic *kailos, meaning "omen," with roots in Proto-Indo-European *kéh₂ilos, associated with concepts of wholeness or health that could extend to auspicious signs. This etymology aligns with Brittonic forms like Old Breton coel (glossed as "haruspex," a diviner) and Middle Breton koel, as well as Cornish chuillioc (glossed as "augur"). Alternative derivations, such as connections to Proto-Celtic *kaito- ("wood" or "forest," yielding Welsh coed) or *kuwo- ("hollow," from PIE *kewh₂- "vault"), have been proposed but lack direct attestation for personal names like "Coel," which more consistently link to divinatory semantics. Another proposed origin is from the Latin name Caelius ("heavenly"), reflecting possible Romano-British influences, though this remains debated among scholars. These evolutions highlight the name's persistence across during the post-Roman period. The name "Coel" embodies pre-Christian Celtic notions of fate and protection, as omens (*kailos) were central to druidic and tribal practices for interpreting divine will or safeguarding communities in northern British territories. Such linguistic roots suggest a cultural emphasis on prophetic insight for leadership and survival, evoking protective in forested or rugged landscapes. The epithet "Hen" ("the Old") briefly underscores primacy in genealogies, reinforcing the name's archaic resonance.

Variations and Epithets

Coel Hen, translating to "Coel the Old" in Welsh, serves as the foundational variation of the name, with "hen" denoting age or seniority in early medieval Welsh usage. This form appears prominently in northern Welsh genealogies as an ancestral figure denoting patriarchal authority. A key associated with the figure is Godebog, rendering the full name Coel Godebog and interpreted as "Coel the Protector," derived from the earlier form Guotepauc, a Brythonic term meaning "shelterer" or "defender." Linguist Ifor Williams identified Godebog as an indisputable rooted in the compound Votepâcos, emphasizing protective or guardianship roles in sub-Roman contexts. In certain traditions, this functions as a for Coel Hen himself, highlighting military or tribal leadership. The Harleian MS 3859, a 12th-century containing 10th-century Welsh genealogies, records the name as Coel Hen ap Godebog ap Tegfan, where the Godebog applies to his father but underscores the familial emphasis on protective hierarchies in sub-Roman northern Britain. Here, the variations signify patriarchal and martial status within emerging post-Roman dynasties. In English literary adaptations, the name evolves to "King Cole," a form linked to the figure through medieval folklore and serving as a possible inspiration for the nursery rhyme "Old King Cole," though direct historical connections remain debated. This anglicized variant simplifies the epithets while retaining the core identity as a regal ancestor.

Historical Context

Sub-Roman Britain Setting

The Roman administration in Britain began to unravel in the early 5th century, culminating in the official withdrawal of imperial forces and officials around AD 410, as recorded by the historian Zosimus, who noted that the province had expelled its Roman rulers and established a short-lived autonomous governance amid broader imperial crises like the Vandal and Alan invasions of Gaul in AD 406. This departure left a power vacuum, particularly in northern Britain, where centralized Roman control fragmented into localized authority structures among Romano-British elites, giving rise to the Brythonic kingdoms collectively known as Yr Hen Ogledd, or the "Old North," encompassing regions from southern Scotland to northern England. The transition marked a shift from imperial oversight to regional self-defense, with urban centers declining and rural fortifications proliferating as communities adapted to the absence of legionary support. Preceding the full withdrawal, the late saw intensified pressures that foreshadowed the collapse, including the Barbarian Conspiracy of AD 367–368, a coordinated incursion by , Scots (Scotti), and that exploited Roman vulnerabilities such as garrison mutinies and environmental stressors like severe droughts from AD 364–366, which caused widespread famine and societal breakdown. In response, Emperor dispatched Count Theodosius (the Elder) in AD 368, who restored order by recapturing key sites, executing traitorous officials, and refurbishing defenses, though archaeological evidence of coin hoards and fort repairs indicates the recovery was temporary. To bolster defenses, the Comes Britanniarum was established as a senior by the late , overseeing mobile units from bases like Eburacum (), while the Dux Britanniarum managed frontier troops along and the Cumbrian coast, also headquartered at , reflecting the empire's reliance on local military leaders amid escalating threats. These positions exemplified the rise of , or regional warlords, who increasingly wielded autonomous power in the north as imperial resources dwindled. Northern Britain emerged as a highly contested zone between approximately AD 350 and 420, where Romano-British elites navigated complex interactions with invading groups: raiding from beyond , Scots launching seaborne assaults from into the west, and establishing coastal footholds in the east and south. These dynamics, intensified by the Conspiracy, led to plunder of villas and towns, desertions among Roman troops, and a reliance on local militias, as evidenced by increased activity and the hoarding of in the 360s–390s. Later traditions sometimes align figures from this era, such as a at , with ancestral roles in the emerging Old North polities. By the early , these pressures accelerated the devolution of authority to warlords and petty kings, setting the stage for the Brythonic successor states of Yr Hen Ogledd.

Evidence from Medieval Sources

The primary medieval sources attesting to Coel Hen are preserved in Welsh manuscript traditions, particularly the Harleian genealogies, which list him as a key ancestral figure for several northern British royal lines. In British Library Harley MS 3859, a manuscript dated to around the 12th century, Coel Hen appears in multiple pedigrees (such as HG VIII–XII and XIX) as the progenitor of dynasties including that of Urien of Rheged, a 6th-century king celebrated in early Welsh poetry. These genealogies trace Coel's descendants through figures like Ceneu ap Coel, positioning him as an eponymous founder of the "Coeling" group of rulers in the Hen Ogledd (Old North). Another key text, the Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd (Descent of the Men of the North), further elaborates on Coel Hen's role, portraying him as the common ancestor of multiple northern dynasties active around AD 350–420. This tract, with its earliest surviving version in 13th-century manuscripts like Peniarth MS 45, synthesizes pedigrees of rulers from kingdoms such as , , and , emphasizing Coel's foundational status in linking disparate lineages. Scholars note that the text draws on earlier oral and written traditions, but its compilation reflects a effort to unify northern British identity. The authenticity of these sources has been subject to scholarly critique, as they derive from oral traditions likely compiled between the 9th and 12th centuries, introducing potential anachronisms that project later political concerns onto sub-Roman figures. For instance, the emphasis on Coel as a unifying in the Harleian genealogies and Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd appears artificial, possibly secondary to earlier texts like the (c. 700–830 AD), with no of direct connections among the listed dynasties in contemporary . Moreover, no Roman-era documents mention Coel Hen, despite his purported activity during the 4th–5th centuries amid the power vacuums following Roman withdrawal from Britain.

Legendary Accounts

Ancestral Role in Welsh Tradition

In Welsh medieval literature, Coel Hen is depicted as the eponymous founder of the Coeling kindred, a dynastic grouping that retrospectively linked several ruling families across sub-Roman and early medieval Britain. This portrayal appears prominently in the Harleian Genealogies (manuscripts HG VIII–XII and XIX), where Coel Hen serves as the apical ancestor for lineages in the Old North (Hen Ogledd), connecting disparate groups through shared descent to emphasize continuity of British sovereignty amid Anglo-Saxon incursions. The Coeling kindred's significance is evident in its associations with key northern kingdoms, including through descendants like Cynfarch ap Coel, father of the renowned king Urien Rheged, and Gwenddolau ap Ceidio, a sixth-century ruler linked to the in 573. Ties to emerge via figures such as Dumngual Moilmut, while connections to reflect the transmission of these traditions through ecclesiastical networks, such as those involving Pabo Post Prydein and his descendants in . Other notable Coeling include Gwrgi and , sons of Eliffer ap Coel, who ruled (Ebrauc) and embody heroic resistance in northern lore. He also appears indirectly in early Welsh poems, such as those in the Canu Urien cycle preserved in the , which celebrate Coeling rulers and evoke their ancestral prestige. Traditionally dated to around AD 420, Coel Hen's lifespan marks the transition from to independent British kingdoms, with his death sometimes associated in later folklore with the Battle of Coilsfield in southern , signifying the symbolic close of an era for northern British power. However, primary Welsh sources emphasize his genealogical legacy over specific martial ends.

Colchester and Roman Imperial Legend

In medieval English chronicles, Coel Hen is recast as a king or duke of (ancient ), a figure who interacts directly with Roman imperial authority during the late Roman period. According to a 15th-century account in the Three Fifteenth-Century Chronicles, Coel, referred to as King Coyll, ruled Britain in relative peace, founding the town of and the castle of Dover before his death and burial there. During his time, a noble Roman prince named Constance arrived in Britain to demand the owed to ; Coel agreed to pay it, averting conflict and securing peace. This negotiation culminated in Constance marrying Coel's daughter Helena, described as holy and learned; the couple's son, Constantine, later became emperor of and king of Britain, reigning successfully for 26 years. This narrative draws heavily from Geoffrey of Monmouth's (c. 1136), where Coel is the duke of who rebels against the usurper Asclepiodotus, slays him in battle, and briefly assumes the British crown. The Romans then dispatch to restore order; upon landing, Constantius falls ill, but Coel sends his daughter Helena to nurse him, leading to their marriage. Coel dies a month later, allowing Constantius to claim the throne and crown himself king, with Helena eventually bearing Constantine. Unlike Welsh traditions portraying Coel as a northern British leader and ancestor of royal lines in the Hen Ogledd, these English accounts localize him in eastern Britain and tie him to the , emphasizing imperial legitimacy through marriage alliance. A key element of the is a linking Colchester's name to Coel, deriving "Colcestre" from "Coel's ceaster" (Coel's Roman fort or castle), a that reinterprets the site's ancient origins. This blends with later , portraying Coel as a ruler. The legend's historical implausibility stems from its anachronistic fusion of events: it compresses Constantius Chlorus's actual arrival in Britain in 296 AD to suppress a usurper with sub-Roman figures like Coel, whom Welsh sources place in the 4th or early as a post-imperial leader. No supports Coel as Helena's father or a ruler, and the tribute-marriage plot inverts Roman records of Constantius's peaceful integration into Britain without such negotiations. These inventions likely amplified Geoffrey's pseudohistorical framework to glorify British-Roman ties, contrasting sharply with the more genealogical, northern focus of Welsh medieval texts.

Cultural Depictions and Legacy

Connection to Old King Cole

The nursery rhyme "" was first printed around 1708–1709 in William King's Useful Transactions in Philosophy and later included in the 1744 collection , the earliest known anthology of English , where it portrays a jovial monarch summoning his pipe, bowl, and "fiddlers three" for merriment. This depiction emphasizes themes of revelry and music, with the king characterized as a "merry old soul" unburdened by cares. Subsequent 18th-century publications, such as Mother Goose's Melody (circa 1765), expanded the rhyme slightly but retained its core structure and lighthearted tone. In the early , antiquarians began proposing links between the rhyme's protagonist and historical or legendary figures named Coel, including Coel Hen, a sub-Roman British chieftain, or a supposed ruler of whose name derived from similar etymological roots; however, these associations, often drawn by scholars like William King in broader discussions of British antiquities, provide no direct textual or chronological evidence tying the to such sources. The legend, which includes elements of feasting and possibly musical accompaniment in medieval accounts, offers only a superficial parallel to the rhyme's festive motifs. Modern scholarship, as detailed in authoritative studies of , largely dismisses any substantive connection to Coel Hen, attributing the rhyme instead to widespread European motifs of jolly rulers in oral traditions, with the name "Cole" likely a common stock character rather than a specific historical ; any resemblance remains coincidental and unsupported by primary evidence from the rhyme's era. This view underscores how nursery rhymes often evolved from anonymous folk elements, independent of ancient British legends.

Influence in Literature and Folklore

Coel Hen's portrayal in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) established him as a duke of Colchester who rebelled against Roman authority, seized the crown, and became the father of Helena, whose union with Constantius produced the emperor Constantine, thereby integrating him into the foundational narrative of British kingship that permeated later Arthurian literature. This depiction as a northern warlord and pivotal figure in the transition from Roman to British rule influenced medieval chronicles and romances, framing Coel as a symbol of resistance and dynastic continuity within the Matter of Britain tradition. In the 19th-century Welsh Romantic revival, antiquarian (Edward Williams) revived and expanded Coel Hen's legacy through fabricated manuscripts and triads, such as those in the Iolo Manuscripts, where he linked Coel to ancient Celtic lineages, including as a descendant of earlier heroes like , to bolster nationalistic visions of Welsh heritage. These inventions, published in works like The Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales (1801–1807), portrayed Coel as a progenitor of bardic and royal houses, inspiring 20th-century that romanticized sub-Roman warlords, though often without direct attribution. Modern depictions in position Coel Hen as a proto-Arthurian , as seen in Francis Williams' Honor (2019), the first novel in the Thrones of Britannia series, where his death around 420 AD precipitates the of Britain into warring kingdoms amid Saxon incursions. Such portrayals emphasize his role as a unifying leader in a chaotic post-Roman era, echoing Arthurian themes of and defense against invaders. As of November 2025, Coel Hen remains absent from major video games or , with no significant archaeological evidence or DNA studies confirming his or lineage.

References

  1. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0078172X.2022.2031049
  2. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishNorthernBritain.htm
  3. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/BritainRhegedSouth.htm
  4. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coel#Welsh
  5. https://www.library.wales/fileadmin/docs_gwefan/new_structure/discover/digital_exhibitions/printed_material/welsh_classical_dictionary/03_C1.pdf
  6. https://core.ac.uk/download/219377639.pdf
  7. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/britain-ad-406410/A195399B7122F74744DD932BC94B3AAD
  8. https://www.academia.edu/42962724/Before_It_Was_Scotland_Hen_Ogledd
  9. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/date-of-the-barbarian-conspiracy/3FA47D2D6F14FC4CC89F7C41B4235759
  10. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12003598/
  11. https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/classical-references/the-notitia-dignitatum/
  12. https://academic.oup.com/book/27104/chapter/196503936
  13. https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/extreme-drought-contributed-to-barbarian-invasion-of-late-roman-britain-tree-ring-study-reveals
  14. https://archive.org/details/ycymmrodor09cymmuoft
  15. https://www.yorku.ca/inpar/geoffrey_thompson.pdf
  16. https://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/essex/vol9/pp19-26
  17. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/40457/40457-h/40457-h.htm
  18. https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/80175/who-was-old-king-cole-and-why-was-he-such-merry-old-soul
  19. https://interestingliterature.com/2018/10/a-short-analysis-of-the-old-king-cole-nursery-rhyme-origins-history/
  20. https://www.library.wales/fileadmin/docs_gwefan/new_structure/discover/digital_exhibitions/printed_material/welsh_classical_dictionary/05_D-E-F.pdf
  21. https://www.amazon.com/Honor-Thrones-Soldiers-Francis-Williams/dp/1089991835
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