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King eider
King eider
King eider
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King eider
Temporal range: Pleistocene–present
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Adult male in northern Norway
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Anseriformes
Family: Anatidae
Genus: Somateria
Species:
S. spectabilis
Binomial name
Somateria spectabilis
   breeding range
   nonbreeding range
Synonyms

Anas spectabilis Linnaeus, 1758

The king eider (pronounced /ˈaɪ.dər/) (Somateria spectabilis) is a large sea duck that breeds along Northern Hemisphere Arctic coasts of northeast Europe, North America and Asia. The birds spend most of the year in coastal marine ecosystems at high latitudes, and migrate to Arctic tundra to breed in June and July. They lay four to seven eggs in a scrape on the ground lined with grass and down.

Taxonomy and etymology

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When he first described the king eider in 1758, in the 10th edition of his opus Systema Naturae, Carl Linnaeus assigned it to the genus Anas, along with the rest of the ducks.[2] In 1819, William Elford Leach moved it and the other large eiders to the genus Somateria, where it has remained since.[3] It is very closely related to the other members of its genus, and is known to hybridise with the common eider.[4] Despite its very large range, it is monotypic.[2]

The genus name Somateria is a combination of the Greek words sōma, meaning "body", and erion, meaning "wool"; the combination (i.e. "wooly body") is a reference to the eider's famously thick, soft down.[5] The specific name spectabilis is Latin for "showy", "remarkable" or "worth seeing", a reference to the handsomeness of the adult male's plumage.[5] The bird's common name, king eider, is a direct translation of its Icelandic name.[6] It is called "king" because of the orange, crown-like knob above the male's bill; the male's multicoloured plumage also suggests royal robes.[5] "Eider" is a Dutch, German or Swedish word derived from the Icelandic word æður (meaning eider), itself derived from the Old Norse æthr.[7]

Description

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The king eider is a large sea duck, measuring 50–70 cm (20–28 in) in length with a wingspan of 86–102 cm (34–40 in).[8] Males are, on average, heavier than females, with a mean weight of 1.668 kg (3.68 lb) for males and 1.567 kg (3.45 lb) for females.[9] An individual bird's mass can vary considerably from season to season—from as little as 0.9 kg (2.0 lb) to as much as 2.2 kg (4.9 lb).[10] Like all eiders, the species is sexually dimorphic; the male is slightly larger[11] and, in breeding plumage, much more colourful than the female.[10] The male is unmistakable with its mostly black body, buff-tinged white breast and multicoloured head. The head, nape and neck are a pale bluish grey. The cheek is pale green. The bill, separated from the face by a thin black line, is red with a white nail and a large, distinctive yellow knob. Some tertials are curved up and form "spurs" along the back.[12]

The female (occasionally colloquially referred to as a "queen eider")[13] is a warm brown colour overall, slightly paler on the head and neck. The feathers on her upperparts and flanks are marked with blackish chevrons, while those on her neck and head bear fine black streaks. She has a buffy spot at the base of her bill and a buffy eye ring which extends into a downward curving stripe behind her eye.[8] Her bill is variously described as black[14] or grey, and her legs and feet are greenish grey.[8]

Juvenile birds are greyish brown. Late in their first autumn, young males moult into a darker plumage, with white on the breast and rump; it takes them three years to achieve full adult plumage.[8]

Habitat and range

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The king eider is circumpolar, found throughout the Arctic.[15] It breeds on the Arctic coast of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Svalbard and Russia, using a variety of tundra habitats.[8] It winters in arctic and subarctic marine areas, most notably in the Bering Sea, the west coast of Greenland, eastern Canada and northern Norway. Wintering birds can form large flocks on suitable coastal waters, with some flocks exceeding 100,000 birds. It also occurs annually off the northeastern United States, Scotland and Kamchatka.

Behaviour

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Food and feeding

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The king eider's foraging strategies change depending on the season. For much of the year, it is at sea; there, it dives for benthic invertebrates. During the breeding season, it does more of its foraging on freshwater lakes and ponds, where it dabbles, feeding primarily on small invertebrates plucked from the surface of the water.[16] It feeds on mollusks, crustaceans like king crabs, and on sea urchins, starfish and sea anemones.

Breeding

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The female builds a scrape nest on the ground, usually near water. She lines it with vegetation and down feathers from her own body. She lays a clutch of 2–7 eggs, which she alone incubates for 22 to 23 days.[17] The young are raised collectively by the females.[12]

Voice

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The male's song is a quavering, dove-like cooing, transcribed as croo-croo-croo[18] or hoo-hoo-hooo.[8] The female makes a variety of low clucks,[8] grunts and growls.[18]

Longevity

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The oldest known king eider was a female that lived at least 18 years 11 months. She was ringed (banded) as an adult south of Gambell, Alaska, in 1940, and shot in 1958 in Utqiagvik, Alaska.[19]

Conservation and threats

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Due to its large population and vast range, the king eider is listed as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.[1] The king eider is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.

As eggs and young, king eiders have many predators, including glaucous gull, common raven, parasitic jaeger and Arctic fox.[20]

Traditional uses

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The king eider, or qengallek (pronounced [qə.ˈŋaː.ɬək]) in Yup'ik, is a regular source of fresh meat in the spring. They begin their migration past the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta in late April and are hunted in great numbers. In May, several hundred thousand king eiders pass Point Barrow in northern Alaska on their way to Alaskan and Canadian breeding grounds.

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References

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King eider

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from Grokipedia
The King eider (Somateria spectabilis) is a large sea duck in the family , characterized by its striking and adaptation to environments. Males measure 18.5–25.2 inches (47–64 cm) in length and weigh 42.3–74.1 ounces (1,200–2,100 g), featuring a pale head and neck with a crown, greenish cheek patch, black body , white back and flanks, and a distinctive red bill topped with a large orange shield-like plate that bulges the forehead. Females are smaller and more subdued, with rich rusty-brown intricately marbled in black, a paler face, and a black bill, providing during nesting. This species is renowned for its vibrant breeding in males, which serves in displays, and its robust build suited for diving in cold waters. King eiders breed in Arctic tundra habitats across , , and , typically near coastal areas or interior lakes, constructing nests in shallow depressions lined with down and vegetation. They winter along the edges of in northern marine waters, from and the to the coasts of , , and the of , often foraging in rocky coastal zones or polynyas (open water amid ice). Migration occurs in massive flocks, with birds covering over 9,000 miles annually at speeds up to 40 mph, sometimes passing coastal observation points in groups of hundreds of thousands. Their diet consists primarily of aquatic such as mussels, crabs, urchins, and amphipods, obtained by diving to depths of up to 180 feet, supplemented by insects and plant matter during breeding. Breeding pairs form on wintering grounds, with females laying 2–7 olive-buff eggs in a single brood, which they incubate alone for 22–24 days while males migrate north earlier. Ducklings are precocial, leaving the nest shortly after hatching and following the female to water for brooding and foraging. The global population is estimated at 800,000–900,000 individuals, though it is suspected to be decreasing due to threats like , oil and gas development, and historical hunting pressures. Despite regional declines exceeding 50% in some populations over the past 50 years, the species is classified as Least Concern on the owing to its extensive range.

Taxonomy and systematics

Etymology

The scientific name of the king eider, Somateria spectabilis, derives from two components. The genus Somateria was introduced in 1819 by the English zoologist to accommodate large eiders, combining the Greek words sōma (body) and erion (wool) to reference the bird's thick, plumage that provides insulation in environments. The specific epithet spectabilis originates from Latin, meaning "remarkable," "showy," or "worth seeing," alluding to the ornate and colorful breeding of the adult male. The king eider was first formally described in 1758 by Swedish naturalist in the tenth edition of , under the binomial Anas spectabilis within the broad for ducks; it was later reclassified into Somateria by Leach in 1819 based on shared morphological traits with other eiders. The common name "king eider" reflects the male's regal appearance, particularly the crown-like orange knob on its bill and its vibrant, multicolored head and body suggestive of royal attire. The term "eider" stems from the Icelandic æður, derived from æthr, denoting this type of sea duck.

Classification

The king eider (Somateria spectabilis) is classified within the family , the ducks, geese, and swans, and belongs to the subfamily Merginae, which encompasses the sea ducks. It is placed in the Somateria, a group that includes other northern sea ducks adapted to marine environments. The species was originally described by in 1758 as Anas spectabilis in his . In 1819, reclassified it into the newly established Somateria, recognizing its distinct morphological and ecological traits among the eiders. S. spectabilis is considered a monotypic with no recognized , reflecting its relatively uniform morphology across its circumpolar range. Its closest relatives are the (Somateria mollissima), with which it shares the Somateria, and the (Somateria fischeri) in subgenus Lampronetta; occasional hybridization has been documented, particularly with the . Phylogenetically, the king eider is part of the eider clade within , a lineage that has evolved specialized adaptations for marine habitats, including diving capabilities and cold tolerance.

Description

Physical characteristics

The king eider (Somateria spectabilis) is a moderately large sea , between the of a crow and a , larger than a but smaller than a , measuring 47–64 cm in length with a of 89–102 cm. Adult males average 1.668 kg in weight, while females average 1.567 kg, reflecting slight sexual dimorphism where males are generally larger than females. These measurements can vary by population and location, such as higher average weights for males in at 1.763 kg. The species exhibits a robust, stocky build suited to its aquatic lifestyle, with relatively short legs positioned toward the rear of the body to facilitate during and diving. Its feet are large and fully webbed, enabling efficient locomotion and dives to depths of up to 55 m for seafloor . The wings are broad and strong, supporting flight speeds up to 64 km/h (40 mph) over water and during migrations. A prominent feature is the large bill, which is slightly upturned with a pronounced or knob, particularly in males.

Plumage and sexual dimorphism

The king eider (Somateria spectabilis) exhibits pronounced in , with males displaying vibrant, ornate patterns during breeding season to attract mates, while females have cryptic, mottled brown coloration for during nesting. Adult males in breeding plumage feature a striking black back, belly, and rump contrasting with a white breast and flanks; the head shows a pale blue-gray crown and nape, iridescent green cheeks, and a rosy wash on the breast, topped by a distinctive orange-red bill with a black nail and enlarged . In contrast, adult females are predominantly reddish-brown with intricate black barring and scalloping on the flanks, tail, and underparts, accented by pale buffy cheek patches and a grayish bill, providing effective concealment in habitats. Juveniles of both sexes resemble adult females upon fledging, with pale buffy-brown streaked in black-olive on the sides, a gray chin and throat, and barred underparts, lacking the males' prominent back "sails." Immature males undergo progressive molts over 2–3 years to achieve full coloration, beginning with female-like brown tones in their first year, developing a white chest and orange bill by the second year, and gradually acquiring the head and facial patches by the third summer. Molt cycles occur annually, with a pre-basic molt in wintering areas from August to November, during which males enter an eclipse plumage resembling females—dull gray-brown overall with a reduced on the bill—while flightless due to simultaneous wing feather replacement in summer. Females molt to a similar but slightly more distinct in early summer, retaining much of their breeding pattern. For identification, the male's unique head pattern—blue crown with cheeks and orange bill—sets it apart from other eiders, while females are distinguished by their finer barring and scalloped flanks compared to the coarser bars of common eiders; in flight, both sexes show patches on the forewing and rump.

Distribution and habitat

Breeding distribution

The king eider (Somateria spectabilis) exhibits a circumpolar breeding distribution across high Arctic tundra regions, spanning from and northern Canada— including areas such as and — eastward through and , and into northern Russia, such as the , , , and , extending to . Breeding occurs primarily in coastal or near-coastal habitats, extending up to 50 km inland (rarely reaching 100 km), in proximity to freshwater lakes, ponds, rivers, pools, bogs, marshes, and streams, while favoring open areas that avoid dense vegetation. The largest population concentrations are found in the Canadian Arctic, with the western North American breeding population estimated at 300,000–400,000 individuals as of the mid-2010s (largely on Banks and Victoria Islands) and over 100,000 individuals in Russian as of the mid-2010s, though overall populations are suspected to be decreasing; North American breeding populations are broadly divided into Atlantic and Pacific groups based on geographic separation. King eiders arrive at their breeding grounds seasonally in late May to mid-June, often before complete snow and melt, with males typically preceding females by a short period.

Non-breeding distribution

The king eider (Somateria spectabilis) winters primarily in and marine waters, where it seeks open water along edges for foraging. Key wintering areas include the for the Pacific population, encompassing regions south of , the (such as ), and the ; the and adjacent coasts of Newfoundland and west for the Atlantic population; and the near the for European birds. In irruptive years or for immature birds, the species extends farther south, with records reaching (such as and coasts) in and northern in . These southern extensions are typically associated with vagrant individuals joining flocks of common eiders (Somateria mollissima). Post-breeding dispersal varies by sex and age: adult males depart breeding areas early to molt in northern seas like the or Chukotsk Peninsula, while females and young remain closer to breeding grounds longer before joining wintering flocks. North American populations are distinct, with the Pacific group (breeding in and ) wintering mainly in the and the Atlantic group (breeding in eastern Canada) favoring the and regions, showing little inter-population mixing during winter. Flock dynamics feature large aggregations, often exceeding 100,000 individuals, concentrated at ice edges in these marine habitats during non-breeding periods. Vagrant records occur rarely in temperate zones, including the (where several individuals winter annually in northern Britain) and the of .

Habitat preferences

The king eider (Somateria spectabilis) prefers breeding habitats in Arctic environments ranging from dry to wet conditions, characterized by low vegetation cover such as grasses and sedges, and often in proximity to freshwater ponds or lakes that facilitate dabbling . Nests are typically placed in slight depressions on grassy hummocks, ridges, or under sparse cover like and rocks, providing against predators while allowing quick access to for feeding and brood rearing. These sites are selected for their well-drained soils and seclusion, with higher nest success observed in areas offering moderate vegetation for lining the simple bowl-shaped nests. During winter, king eiders inhabit open marine waters along pack ice edges, rocky coasts, and polynyas—persistent open-water areas within ice fields—while avoiding deep, ice-free oceanic regions. They favor shallow benthic zones, typically less than 50 m in depth (averaging around 38 m), where diving is efficient for accessing prey, and maintain distances of about 6–11 km from shorelines to balance opportunities with protection from storms. These habitats feature cobble or silt substrates rich in macroinvertebrates, with intermediate ice concentrations (around 35–40%) that support without fully restricting movement. Foraging microhabitats vary by season: in marine environments, king eiders target seafloor areas with mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms, diving to depths up to 55 m for over 90 seconds to exploit these resources; during breeding, they shift to shallow freshwater ponds (<1 m deep) for , larvae, and emergent plants like Carex species, which provide essential nutrients for reproduction. These preferences reflect an income breeding strategy, where local food sources directly support egg production rather than relying on pre-migratory reserves. King eiders exhibit adaptations suited to extreme conditions, including dense, insulating (reflected in their name Somateria, meaning "wool body") that enables tolerance of near-freezing s and prolonged exposure to subzero temperatures. Their ability to relocate to areas of predictable melt, such as recurring polynyas, ensures access to open for and resting on floes, while powerful diving capabilities allow exploitation of benthic habitats year-round. These traits enhance survival in dynamic regimes, though they may face challenges from shifting melt patterns.

Behavior and ecology

Foraging and diet

The king eider (Somateria spectabilis) is a benthic forager that primarily consumes marine invertebrates during the non-breeding season, with mussels (Mytilus edulis), clams (such as the Greenland cockle Clinocardium ciliatum), and snails forming the bulk of its diet, alongside crustaceans including amphipods, isopods, and crabs (e.g., arctic lyre crab Hyas araneus). Echinoderms like green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) and annelid worms are also important, supplemented by fish eggs (from species such as sculpins and lumpfish) and occasional algae. This high-lipid prey base provides essential energy for insulation against Arctic conditions and long-distance migrations, with females gaining approximately 2 g of fat per day during pre-migratory staging. Foraging occurs mainly through diving to the seafloor, where individuals propel themselves using wings and feet for durations of 30–90 seconds, reaching depths of 20–40 m on average but up to 55 m in some habitats over cobble or mixed substrates with kelp and coralline algae. They avoid sandy bottoms or sea urchin barrens, using keen eyesight to locate and seize prey, which is then crushed in the gizzard. During the breeding season, foraging shifts to shallow tundra ponds and lakes, where birds employ surface methods such as upending, head-dipping, sieving, and probing to capture aquatic insects (e.g., chironomid larvae, midges), oligochaete worms, small crustaceans (e.g., water fleas), and emergent vegetation like sedges (Carex spp.) and willows. Seasonal dietary changes reflect habitat transitions, with a strong marine focus in winter and molting periods to build reserves, transitioning to freshwater prey during pre-breeding and nesting to support production and chick provisioning. Pre-breeding females intensively, dedicating about 7.2 hours per day (30% of active time) to intake, consuming 1.0–2.5 g of biomass per minute to meet energy demands of 1,471–2,528 kJ per day. Males less, around 2.3 hours per day. As abundant benthic predators, king eiders contribute to regulating invertebrate populations in marine and coastal ecosystems, similar to other eiders that deplete dominant prey like mussels and influence community .

Reproduction

The king eider exhibits a seasonal monogamous , with pairs typically forming on wintering grounds in late winter or during spring migration to the breeding areas. Males perform elaborate displays, including wing flapping, neck stretching, and vocalizations, to attract females; these displays often occur in loose groups and may involve males attempting to copulate with multiple females, though pair bonds are generally maintained until egg-laying. Nesting occurs in solitary or loosely grouped sites on , often in concealed locations such as among or rocks near water bodies, with nests consisting of shallow ground scrapes lined with tundra plants and down added progressively after the third or fourth . Clutch sizes range from 2 to 7 eggs, averaging 4, which are laid at a rate of one per day and colored olive-buff; intraspecific occurs occasionally in higher-density areas. Incubation lasts 22–24 days and is performed solely by the , who maintains high constancy (95–99%) on the nest, taking brief recesses (averaging 0.6 per day, 20–35 minutes each) to feed on nearby resources while relying largely on endogenous fat reserves, resulting in about 30% body mass loss. The male abandons the female shortly after completion, providing no further . Hatchlings are precocial and downy, leaving the nest within 24 hours under the female's guidance, who broods them briefly before leading the brood overland (often 1–2 km) to freshwater ponds or coastal marine habitats for . During the 40–50-day brood-rearing period, the female does not feed the ducklings directly but leads them to invertebrate-rich food sources, such as ponds initially and then marine areas; fledging occurs at sea around 50–60 days post-hatching. Breeding success varies by location and year, with nest survival rates of 21–57% influenced by predation from foxes and avian predators; overall fledging success (ducklings surviving to independence) ranges from 20–50%, limited primarily by high early duckling mortality (e.g., 10% survival to 24 days in some studies) due to , , and predation. King eiders typically first breed at 2–3 years of age, with most individuals reaching in their third summer.

Vocalizations and displays

The king eider exhibits relatively simple vocalizations compared to many other waterfowl, with calls primarily serving , alarm, and brood maintenance functions rather than complex songs. Males produce a variety of low, resonant calls during breeding displays, including a wavering "hoooo" during the pushing display, where the head is thrust forward and upward with the bill pointed downward and the chest inflated, often repeated 3-4 times. A tremulous, owl-like "hoo-oo-oo-oo" accompanies the reaching display, involving vertical neck extension and forward head swings nearly touching the water surface, gradually fading as the head retracts. These vocalizations are more vibrant and cooing than those of the , emphasizing the male's ornate and physical postures in cooperative flocks, where multiple males surround a female on the water. Courtship displays are elaborate and synchronized, featuring rapid head-turning in 180-degree arcs at about one per second, often following pushing or reaching movements to maintain visual attention. Males also perform wing-flapping by rearing vertically out of the , executing two quick flaps to expose the "V" on the , while puffing the chest and sometimes fanning the to highlight iridescent feathers. These behaviors, faster-paced than in related eiders, culminate in pair-bonding through mutual between mates. Agonistic interactions among males include chin-lifting and chasing to defend territories, accompanied by croaks. Females vocalize less prominently but use soft growls, grunts, and clucks to communicate with broods, maintaining contact during creche formation and movement to foraging areas. When responding to courting males or during disturbances, females emit low "kuck" or "kwack" calls, while alarm situations prompt sharp "ark-ark" or low "kwak" notes from both sexes, along with growling and murmuring on breeding grounds. Nesting females produce angry growls or grunts when threatened, aiding in chick recognition and predator distraction. Overall, the acoustic repertoire supports reproductive success in harsh Arctic environments, with limited complexity focused on immediate social and defensive needs.

Migration patterns

The king eider (Somateria spectabilis) exhibits distinct seasonal migrations between breeding grounds and wintering areas, with patterns varying by population and sex. Spring migration northward begins in late for the Atlantic population, with staging in West waters, and extends into early May for the Pacific population departing from wintering sites. Arrival at breeding grounds typically occurs in late May to early June across both populations, though males often precede females by several weeks. Fall migration southward shows greater variability, lasting from 3 to 105 days, with males initiating post-breeding movements as early as late after molt, while females and young depart later, from to . In the Pacific population, southward travel occurs primarily from late to mid-January, often following wing molt in the . For the Atlantic population, departures from breeding and molting sites in begin in mid-September to mid-, with some movements extending into November or December depending on ice conditions. Migration routes differ between populations: the Pacific group travels via the , passing through the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas en route to northern breeding areas, with some individuals covering up to 1,500 km between wintering sites in the northern or southwestern . The Atlantic population follows a path around , staging in Icelandic waters during late summer and migrating via Greenland's west coast to wintering grounds off and southwest banks. Northern breeders, particularly in northeast , may undertake shorter routes or remain partially resident, while southern-edge populations travel longer distances. King eiders employ energy-efficient strategies during migration, traveling in large, gregarious flocks of up to 10,000 individuals that fly low over water, often at speeds averaging 122 km per day for females during molt migration. They stage at polynyas—persistent open-water areas in —such as the Eastern for Pacific birds (21 ± 10 days in spring) or Store Hellefiskebanke in West for Atlantic individuals (late April staging), where they accumulate energy reserves through benthic in shallow waters less than 50 m deep. Males migrate earliest post-breeding to prioritize molt and fat deposition, reflecting high individual variability in routes and timing that optimizes . Migration presents challenges including high energy demands from long-distance flights and diving , exacerbated by adverse and dynamic conditions that can delay staging or force detours. influences about 35% of departure movements, though birds do not always seek lower-ice areas, and food availability drives irruptive shifts, with some individuals making exploratory movements up to 1,499 km in winter to access benthic resources. During stopovers, king eiders preferentially use coastal polynyas and shallow banks for resting and feeding on mussels.

Conservation

Population status

The global population of the king eider (Somateria spectabilis) is estimated at 800,000–900,000 mature individuals as of 2015, though estimates vary by source and region. In , the breeding population exceeded 830,000 birds as of 2017, while spring migration counts at key sites like , , have ranged from approximately 300,000 to 800,000 individuals in surveys conducted between 1994 and 2016. These figures encompass both breeding and non-breeding segments, with the North American subset representing a substantial portion of the global total, estimated at 1–2 million when including immature birds across varying surveys as of 2015. However, the 2025 U.S. State of the Birds report designates the king eider as an "Orange Alert Tipping Point" species, noting a loss of more than 50% of its over the past 50 years, with accelerated declines in the past decade. Population trends are generally decreasing worldwide, classified as such by the , though regional variations exist. In , the overall population has declined by more than 50% since the late , with the Pacific subpopulation experiencing particularly sharp drops of over 50% from the to the . However, some aerial and migration surveys indicate stability or even temporary increases in specific areas, such as an 18.6% annual rise in counts at when excluding anomalous low years. In the Canadian , local populations have shown small to moderate annual declines of 2–5%, monitored primarily through aerial breeding pair surveys and wintering ground assessments. Recent surveys in the (2007–2024) confirm a declining trend, with a growth rate of 0.96 and indices dropping to around 10,000–12,000 indicated breeding birds in 2022–2024. Wild king eiders have a maximum recorded lifespan of 24 years and 1 month, documented through banding recoveries in , . Annual adult survival rates are high, estimated at 0.94 (95% CI: 0.86–0.97) based on satellite telemetry data from . In contrast, hatch-year survival is lower at 0.67 (95% CI: 0.48–0.80), reflecting vulnerabilities in the first year of life. Demographic parameters include a generally balanced among , with no significant biases reported in breeding populations. into the population remains limited by high chick mortality, as early-life survival rates are substantially lower than those of , constraining overall despite strong adult survivorship.

Threats and conservation measures

The king eider faces several natural threats, primarily predation on eggs, ducklings, and adults by arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus), glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus), jaegers (such as pomarine jaegers, Stercorarius pomarinus), and common ravens (Corvus corax). Nest disturbance from these predators can lead to significant losses during incubation and early brood stages, though females employ and formation to mitigate risks to ducklings. Anthropogenic threats include oil and gas exploration, potential spills, and increased shipping in waters, where the species spends much of its life foraging in moderate-ice areas, making large flocks particularly vulnerable to that impairs and insulation. Subsistence overharvesting also poses risks in some regions, while emerging concerns involve in fisheries nets and disturbance from offshore wind development. exacerbates these issues through sea ice loss, which alters prey availability (such as mussels and amphipods) and leads to erosion from intensified storms, resulting in breeding delays and reduced clutch sizes. Conservation efforts protect the king eider under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in the United States and , prohibiting take without permits and supporting international cooperation. The is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, with a stable range but ongoing monitoring due to potential declines. and the Duck conduct population surveys, satellite tracking, and habitat assessments in key areas, while safeguards in U.S. Arctic National Wildlife Refuges limit industrial activities to preserve breeding and molting sites. In , proposed actions include stricter response protocols, though no specific measures are currently implemented. Looking ahead, the king eider's reliance on ecosystems heightens vulnerability to rapid warming, prompting calls for reduced industrial expansion and enhanced international agreements to address cumulative threats.

Relationship with humans

Traditional uses

The and peoples of have long relied on the king eider (Somateria spectabilis) for subsistence, harvesting its meat and eggs as a vital protein source during shortages, particularly in spring when stored winter provisions dwindle. These hunts target flocks during predictable northward migrations, with communities along the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta timing efforts for late when large numbers of birds pass coastal villages en route to breeding grounds. Precontact archaeological from sites like Nunalleq confirms king eiders contributed to diets, alongside other waterfowl, with modern estimates indicating thousands harvested annually in the region for consumption. In October 2025, the Nunalleq site was severely damaged by remnants of Halong, scattering artifacts and impacting the preservation of related to historical bird use. Beyond sustenance, king eider materials support traditional crafting, with down feathers prized for their exceptional warmth and used to line and garments like the Yup'ik atasuaq, a feather-insulated baby nearly lost to historical hunting restrictions but revived in communities such as Toksook Bay. Skins, processed by scraping, washing, and softening, form the durable outer layer of these , valued for and flexibility in cold, wet conditions; historical records note preferences for the soft blue-gray hue of king eider skins in childrens' attire. These practices remain small-scale and community-oriented, minimizing ecological impact through targeted, opportunistic collection during migrations. Contemporary subsistence harvesting integrates with regulatory frameworks under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, including seasonal quotas and closed periods such as the annual 30-day closure for king and common eiders from June 7 to July 6 in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta in 2025. Annual subsistence take in and averaged around 20,000 king eiders based on 1999–2008 data, monitored to balance nutritional and material needs with conservation.

Cultural significance

The king eider occupies a notable place in oral traditions and community celebrations, symbolizing resilience amid harsh Arctic conditions and a deep connection to the sea. In , , the annual Kingalik Jamboree—named after the term for the male king eider (kingalik)—honors the bird's northward migration in mid-June, marking a time of renewal and communal gathering with traditional dances, games, and feasts that reflect its role as an emblem of seasonal adaptation and cultural continuity. The bird's striking plumage, particularly the male's iridescent blue and orange hues, inspires symbolic representations in and crafts, evoking themes of beauty and harmony with the marine environment. It appears frequently in stone sculptures, stonecut prints, and ivory carvings by artists from communities like (Cape Dorset) and Holman (), such as Kananginak Pootoogook's 1965 engraving King Eider, which highlights the bird's elegant form as a motif of . Eider down, including from king eiders, is incorporated into ceremonial dance clothing, enhancing used in festivals like the Kingalik to connect participants with ancestral spirits and the natural world. In modern contexts, the king eider serves as an emblem in conservation efforts, appearing in art that promotes awareness of polar ecosystems and indigenous stewardship. It has been featured on Canadian postage stamps, including the 2002 Canadian Wildlife Habitat Conservation Stamp depicting a pair of king eiders to support wetland preservation, and the 2007 stamp showcasing the male's vibrant coloration to highlight Arctic biodiversity. In ethnozoological perspectives, the king eider is regarded in oral traditions as a harbinger of spring and summer, its migratory return signaling the onset of warmer months and abundant essential to community life.

References

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