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List of thread standards
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A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being called a straight thread and the latter called a tapered thread. More screw threads are produced each year than any other machine element.[1]
Threads are generally produced according to one of the many standards of thread systems. Standards Development Organizations such as the American National Standards Institute, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, SAE International, International Organization for Standardization, Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for Standardization), British Association and others produce these standards for manufacturers to follow when producing threaded components.
Currently used thread standards
[edit]| Standard | Name | Type | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| ASME B1.1-2003 (R2018) | Unified Inch Screw Threads (UN and UNR Thread Form) | V Thread Form | 1⁄4″-20 UNC #4-40 UNC |
| ASME B1.5-1997 (R2014) | Acme Screw Threads | Trapezoidal Thread Form | Tr 60×9 |
| ANSI/ASME B1.9-1973 (R2017) | Buttress Inch Screw Threads | Breech-Lock Thread Form | |
| ASME B1.10M-2004 (R2014) | Unified Miniature Screw Threads | V Thread Form | 0.60 UNM |
| ANSI/ASME B1.11-1958 (R2016) | Microscope Objective Thread | V Thread Form | |
| ASME B1.13M-2005 (R2015) | Metric Screw Threads: M Profile | V Thread Form | |
| ASME B1.15-1995 (R2003) | Unified Inch Screw Threads (UNJ Thread Form) | V Thread Form | |
| ASME B1.20.1-2013 | Pipe Threads, General Purpose (Inch) | Pipe Thread Form | |
| ANSI B1.20.3-1976 (R2013) | Dryseal Pipe Threads (Inch) | Pipe Thread Form | |
| ASME B1.20.7-1991 (R2013) | Hose Coupling Screw Threads - Inch | Pipe Thread Form | |
| ASME B1.21M-1997 (R2013) | Metric Screw Threads - MJ Profile | V Thread Form | |
| BS 84 | Tables of BS Whitworth, BS Fine and BS Pipe Threads | V Thread Form (55°) | 1⁄4″-20 BSW |
| ISO 68-1:1998 | ISO general purpose screw threads—Basic profile—Part 1: Metric screw threads | V Thread Form | |
| ISO 68-2:1998 | ISO general-purpose screw threads—Basic profile—Part 2: Inch screw threads | V Thread Form | |
| ISO 261:1998 | ISO general purpose metric screw threads—General plan | V Thread Form | M6x1 |
| ISO 262:1998 | ISO general purpose metric screw threads—Selected sizes for screws, bolts and nuts | V Thread Form | |
| ISO 724:1993 | ISO general-purpose metric screw threads—Basic dimensions | V Thread Form | |
| ISO 725:2009 | ISO inch screw threads—Basic dimensions | V Thread Form 51386 | |
| DIN 40400 | Edison Thread | Round V Thread Form |
Obsolete thread standards
[edit]| Standard | Name | Type | Obsolescence date |
|---|---|---|---|
| BS 93:1951 | British Association (B.A.) screw threads with tolerances for sizes 0 B.A. to 16 B.A. | 1966[2] | |
| BS 93:2008 | British Association (B.A.) screw threads | 1966[3] |
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]References
[edit]- Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.
List of thread standards
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Overview of Thread Standards
Thread Forms and Profiles
Thread forms refer to the cross-sectional geometry of screw threads, which determines their mechanical properties such as strength, friction, and load-bearing capacity. These forms are essential for applications ranging from fastening to power transmission, with the profile influencing how threads engage and transmit forces. The profile is typically defined in an axial plane, encompassing elements like crests, roots, and flanks. Key parameters of thread profiles include the major diameter, which is the largest diameter of the thread at the crests for external threads or roots for internal threads; the minor diameter, the smallest diameter at the roots for external threads or crests for internal threads; pitch, the axial distance between corresponding points on adjacent threads; lead, the axial advance of the thread per complete revolution (equal to pitch for single-start threads); flank angle, the angle between the thread flank and a line perpendicular to the axis; thread height, the radial distance from crest to root; and helix angle, the angle of the thread spiral relative to the axis. These parameters ensure compatibility and performance in mating threads.[4] Common thread profiles include the V-thread, characterized by a symmetric triangular cross-section with a 60° included flank angle, providing balanced load distribution for general fastening. The trapezoidal profile features a 30° flank angle with flat crests and roots, optimized for power transmission in leadscrews due to reduced friction and high load capacity. Buttress threads have an asymmetric design, with one flank at 3° to 7° to the perpendicular to the axis and the other slanted at 45°, enabling efficient handling of unidirectional axial loads in applications like vises or clamps. The Acme profile is a trapezoidal variant with a 29° flank angle and flat crests/roots, offering improved strength and ease of manufacture for power screws while maintaining compatibility with imperial systems. Knuckle threads exhibit rounded crests and roots, forming an arc profile that minimizes stress concentrations and enhances sealing in softer materials such as glass or plastic bulbs. Square threads, with flanks perpendicular to the axis (0° flank angle) and 90° shoulders, achieve high mechanical efficiency (up to 90%) for axial motion but are largely obsolete due to manufacturing challenges and replacement by more versatile forms.[5][6][7][8][9] For a 60° V-thread, the theoretical thread height is calculated as , where is the pitch, representing the height of the fundamental isosceles triangle. In metric threads, the pitch diameter is given by , where is the major diameter, accounting for the truncated profile to ensure proper engagement. These formulas provide the basis for dimensional tolerances in standardized threads.[10][11] The evolution of thread profiles began with square threads in the 18th century, used in early lathes and power screws for their high efficiency in converting rotary to linear motion, as seen in developments like Antoine Thiout's leadscrew around 1750. By the mid-19th century, profiles shifted toward angled forms for better strength and manufacturability; Joseph Whitworth's 55° thread in 1841 marked a step toward standardization, followed by William Sellers' 60° thread proposal in 1864, with further formalization in the Unified National Thread system in the 1920s, which offered versatility for mass production and interchangeability. This progression from square to modern V-threads reflected advances in machining and the need for balanced performance across diverse applications.[12]Standardization Bodies and History
The standardization of screw threads emerged in the 19th century to address the manufacturing chaos caused by incompatible designs among producers, enabling greater interchangeability of components in machinery and construction.[13] In 1841, British engineer Joseph Whitworth proposed the first national standard for screw threads in the United Kingdom, featuring a 55-degree thread angle and rounded flanks, which laid the foundation for subsequent British systems and influenced global efforts to unify specifications.[13] This initiative was driven by the need for consistent production during the Industrial Revolution, reducing errors in assembly and facilitating mass manufacturing.[13] By the mid-19th century, similar pressures in the United States led to William Sellers' 1864 proposal for the American National screw thread standard, characterized by a 60-degree angle, which became the basis for North American inch-based threads and emphasized strength for industrial applications.[14] Major standardization bodies developed in the early 20th century to formalize these efforts. The British Standards Institution (BSI) was founded in 1901 as the Engineering Standards Committee, evolving to oversee national standards including those derived from Whitworth's work, and promoting interoperability in engineering products.[15] In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), established in 1880, collaborated with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)—formed in 1918 as the American Engineering Standards Committee—to develop and maintain screw thread specifications, such as the adoption of Sellers' standard.[16][17] Germany's Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) was created in 1917 to coordinate engineering standards, focusing on precision and metric systems suited to German manufacturing.[18] Post-World War II reconstruction spurred further organizations: Japan's Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) system was established in 1949 under the Industrial Standardization Law to rebuild industry with unified specifications.[19] The Soviet Union's GOST (State Standards) originated in 1925 through the Committee for Standardization, emphasizing centralized control over industrial norms including threads for heavy machinery.[20] International cooperation accelerated in the 20th century, driven by wartime needs and globalization. The 1898 International Congress for the Standardization of Screw Threads in Zurich unified metric thread profiles across European nations, adopting a 60-degree V-form based on French models to promote cross-border trade.[1] Following World War II, the 1948 agreement between the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada established the Unified Thread Standard, blending American and British inch-based designs to support allied manufacturing and reduce wartime incompatibilities.[21] The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), founded in 1947 from a 1946 London conference of 25 countries, emerged as the global authority, developing metric screw thread standards in the 1960s that achieved widespread adoption by harmonizing regional variants and facilitating international supply chains.[22][23] These evolutions reflect a shift from national imperatives to global unification, minimizing regional differences while accommodating specialized needs in aerospace, automotive, and construction sectors.[1]Active International Standards
ISO Metric Screw Threads
ISO general purpose metric screw threads, designated as M threads, are defined by ISO 261, which specifies their characteristics for diameters ranging from 1 mm to 300 mm, incorporating a basic 60° V-profile as outlined in ISO 68-1.[24] These threads feature symmetric flanks at a 60° angle, with the basic profile height H calculated as H = (√3/2) × P, where P is the pitch, providing a standardized form for interchangeable fastening elements.[25] ISO 724 complements this by providing the fundamental dimensions, including major diameter D, pitch diameter d2, and minor diameter d3, derived from the basic profile to ensure compatibility in assembly.[26] ISO 68-2 further details the truncated profiles for practical manufacturing, limiting crest and root clearances to avoid interference. Preferred sizes and pitches are selected in ISO 262, covering coarse, fine, and extra fine series for diameters from 1 mm to 100 mm in the latest edition, with coarse pitches as the default for general use—such as M1.6 × 0.35 up to M68 × 4—to balance strength and ease of production. The coarse series includes examples like M10 × 1.5, where the pitch is 1.5 mm, while fine variants offer closer fits, such as M10 × 1.25 or M10 × 1, reducing thread engagement length in applications requiring higher precision or vibration resistance. Extra fine pitches, like M6 × 0.75, are used for adjustments in instrumentation or where minimal backlash is needed. These selections follow Renard series for logarithmic progression, ensuring a limited set of options that cover most needs without excessive variety.[27] Tolerances for these threads are governed by ISO 965 series, with the medium fit class 6g for external threads and 6H for internal threads being the most common, providing a balance between free assembly and secure fit. The fundamental deviation es for the pitch diameter of external threads in the g position is calculated as es_g = -(15 + 11P) μm, where P is the pitch in mm, establishing the lower limit to ensure clearance. This deviation, combined with tolerance grades from 3 to 10 (grade 6 for medium precision), results in total tolerances like 140 μm for pitch diameter on an M10 thread, allowing for manufacturing variations while maintaining interchangeability.[28][29] These threads find widespread application in automotive components, such as engine bolts and suspension fasteners, and in general machinery for structural connections, owing to their high strength and ease of production.[30] Global adoption accelerated in the 1960s as industries transitioned from national standards, promoting uniformity in international trade and manufacturing.[31] For illustration, consider the M8 × 1.25 coarse thread:| Dimension | Value (mm) |
|---|---|
| Major diameter (external) | 8.000 |
| Pitch diameter | 7.188 |
| Minor diameter (external) | 6.647 |
ISO Special Purpose Threads
ISO special purpose threads encompass a range of standardized profiles developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for applications beyond general-purpose fastening, such as power transmission in leadscrews and pressure-tight sealing in piping systems. These threads deviate from the standard 60° V-profile of ISO metric screw threads by incorporating modified geometries to enhance load-bearing capacity, sealing performance, or centering accuracy. They are widely adopted in machinery, hydraulics, and plumbing worldwide due to their compatibility with metric dimensions and precise tolerances.[33] The primary example is the ISO metric trapezoidal thread, designated as Tr, defined in ISO 2901 through ISO 2904. This profile features a flank angle of 30°, distinguishing it from the sharper V-threads, to provide greater thread strength and efficiency in transmitting motion under heavy loads. Pitches range from 0.5 mm to 44 mm, with nominal diameters starting from Tr 5 × 1, such as Tr 20 × 4 used in machine tool leadscrews for precise linear movement. The basic profile height is derived from a theoretical sharp V-form, but the working height for the design profile is given by h_3 = 0.5 P + a_c, where P is the pitch and a_c is the clearance per ISO 2901; maximum root clearance is limited to prevent interference.[34] These trapezoidal threads excel in leadscrew applications, where their nearly square-sided profile minimizes friction and back-driving compared to V-threads, providing higher efficiency in power screws for industrial automation and CNC machines. ISO 2903 specifies a modified tolerance system for these threads, incorporating adjustments for centering in high-precision assemblies, with classes ranging from 4H to 8g to suit varying fit requirements. Overall tolerances align with ISO 2768 for general geometric deviations, ensuring interchangeability across global manufacturing. Another key category is ISO pipe threads for pressure-tight joints, governed by ISO 7 and ISO 228, which use a 55° Whitworth-based profile adapted to metric sizes rather than the 60° angle of general metric threads. The Rc designation applies to tapered internal threads, while Rp denotes parallel internal threads, both paired with tapered external R threads to form seals through thread deformation under pressure. Sizes range from 1/16 to 6 inches equivalent in metric, such as Rp 1/2 for ½-inch piping. These are essential in plumbing and fluid systems, providing leak-proof connections rated for pressures up to 10 bar without additional sealants in many cases.[35] A specialized variant for hydraulics is covered in ISO 1179, which defines ports and stud ends using ISO 228 parallel threads but with integrated O-ring sealing for enhanced reliability in fluid power systems. These threads are prevalent in hydraulic machinery, supporting pressures from 10 to 63 MPa while maintaining compatibility with global fluid power equipment.[36][37]Active North American Standards
Unified Inch Screw Threads
The Unified Inch Screw Threads, also known as the Unified Thread Standard (UTS), define a system of inch-based screw threads with a 60° thread angle, primarily used in North America for general-purpose fastening applications. Established under ASME B1.1-2024, this standard specifies the thread form (UN), series designations, classes of fit, allowances, tolerances, and nomenclature for unified screw threads, including UN, UNR (with rounded roots), and related variants.[38] A specialized variant, the UNJ thread form covered in ASME B1.15, incorporates a controlled root radius of 0.15011P to 0.18042P (where P is the pitch) on external threads to enhance fatigue resistance in high-stress environments such as aerospace components.[39] These threads share a symmetric V-shaped profile similar to ISO metric screw threads but utilize imperial units and threads per inch (TPI) measurements.[21] The standard includes three primary series: UNC (Unified National Coarse) for general applications requiring robust engagement, UNF (Unified National Fine) for finer adjustments and higher thread strength, and UNEF (Unified National Extra Fine) for specialized uses like vibration resistance. Examples include the 1/4-20 UNC (coarse series with 20 TPI), 1/4-28 UNF (fine series with 28 TPI), and 1/2-20 UNEF (extra fine series with 20 TPI). Nominal sizes range from #0 (smallest) to 4 inches in diameter, accommodating a wide array of fasteners from machine screws to large bolts.[2] Fit classes ensure compatibility between external (A) and internal (B) threads, with 1A/1B providing loose tolerances for easy assembly, 2A/2B offering medium fits for most production uses, and 3A/3B delivering tight tolerances for precision applications. Allowances for external threads in classes 1A and 2A adjust the maximum major diameter to account for plating or manufacturing variations and are equal to 0.3 times the pitch diameter tolerance for class 2A, as defined in ASME B1.1-2024.[38] [40] For instance, in a 1/4-20 UNC thread (D = 0.250 in., TPI = 20), the basic major diameter is 0.250 inches, the pitch diameter is 0.2175 inches, and the minor diameter is 0.1887 inches for a class 2A external thread.[41] Adopted through a 1948 agreement among the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada to unify inch-based threading practices, these standards remain active and widely used in industries such as aerospace and automotive for their reliability and interchangeability.[21]American Pipe and Hose Threads
American pipe and hose threads are standardized by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) for use in pressure-tight connections, particularly in plumbing, gas distribution, and hose fittings, where sealing is achieved through thread interference and taper rather than solely on sealants. The primary standard, ASME B1.20.1-2013 (R2018), defines National Pipe Taper (NPT) threads, which are tapered at a rate of 1:16 and feature a 60° V-thread profile truncated at the crest and root for improved sealing.[42] NPT sizes range from 1/8 inch to 12 inches, with the taper facilitating radial compression upon engagement to form a leak-resistant joint.[43] Complementing NPT, ASME B1.20.3 specifies dryseal National Pipe Taper Fuel (NPTF) threads, which incorporate tighter tolerances for an interference fit that achieves sealing without additional compounds, reducing the risk of leakage in high-vibration or fuel applications.[44] For straight-thread applications, ASME B1.20.7 outlines National Pipe Straight (NPS) threads, including variants like NPSH for hose couplings, which rely on gaskets or O-rings for sealing in non-tapered connections up to 4 inches.[45] These standards are based on the Unified inch screw thread profile but adapted for sealing in fluid conveyance systems.[46] The thread profile is a 60° truncated V-shape, with a taper angle of approximately 1°47', ensuring progressive tightening as the threads engage.[43] A representative example is the 1/2 inch NPT thread, which has an outside diameter of 0.840 inches, 14 threads per inch, and a hand-tight engagement length of 0.533 inches.[46] These dimensions ensure compatibility with standard Schedule 40 pipe while allowing for 4 to 6 threads of engagement under wrench tightening.[47] These threads are widely applied in North American plumbing and gas systems for their reliability in containing fluids and gases up to high pressures, with NPTF variants particularly valued in automotive and aerospace for sealant-free installations that minimize contamination risks.[44] NPS threads per ASME B1.20.7 are common in hose assemblies for fire protection and industrial fluid transfer, where straight forms simplify coupling to flexible lines.[48] Overall, American pipe and hose threads dominate in the U.S. and Canada but are not interchangeable with British Standard Pipe (BSP) threads due to differences in taper and profile angles.[49]Active European Standards
British Standard Screw Threads
The British Standard Screw Threads encompass a family of inch-based screw threads utilizing the Whitworth profile, characterized by a 55° flank angle and rounded crests and roots, primarily for general engineering and piping applications in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth countries.[50][3] These threads evolved from Sir Joseph Whitworth's 1841 design aimed at standardizing British fasteners.[3] The profile's thread height is defined as , where is the pitch, providing a balance of strength and ease of manufacture.[51] The core standard for parallel screw threads is BS 84:2007, which specifies dimensions, limits, and tolerances for British Standard Whitworth (BSW) coarse series and British Standard Fine (BSF) series threads.[50] BSW threads feature coarser pitches for robust applications, such as a 1/4-inch diameter with 20 threads per inch (TPI), while BSF offers finer pitches for precision, like 1/4-inch at 26 TPI; both series cover nominal sizes from 1/4 inch to 6 inches.[52][53] Tolerances follow a medium fit class as the default, ensuring reliable assembly without excessive play, with detailed limits outlined in BS 84 tables for effective and minor diameters.[54][55] For piping, the BS EN 10226 series (superseding the legacy BS 21:1985) defines British Standard Pipe (BSP) threads, including parallel (BSPP, designated G) for straight connections and tapered (BSPT, designated R) for pressure-tight seals with a 1:16 taper ratio.[56][57] Both retain the 55° Whitworth form and cover sizes from 1/16 inch to 6 inches; for example, a 1/2-inch BSPT thread has an outside diameter of 0.835 inches and 14 TPI.[58][59] These standards remain in active use for legacy equipment and specific industries like plumbing and machinery in the UK, coexisting alongside ISO metric threads in modern applications.[3][60]DIN German Screw Threads
DIN German screw threads encompass a range of standards developed by the Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) for metric and specialized applications, particularly in industrial machinery, automotive, and piping systems. These standards emphasize precision, load-bearing capacity, and compatibility with European engineering practices, often featuring 60° flank angles for general-purpose threads or asymmetric profiles for power transmission. Since the 1990s, many DIN specifications have been harmonized with EN ISO equivalents under European standardization, while legacy DIN designations remain prevalent in European manufacturing for backward compatibility and specific tolerances.[61] ISO metric screw threads (historically defined by the now-withdrawn DIN 13 series) include coarse and fine pitches for diameters from 1 mm to 355 mm, with a symmetrical 60° thread angle suitable for general fastening, as specified in ISO 261 and ISO 965 (adopted as EN ISO 261 and EN ISO 965). For example, coarse pitches (e.g., M6 with 1 mm pitch) and fine threads (e.g., 0.75 mm pitch for diameters 5-110 mm) ensure high-strength connections in automotive assemblies where vibration resistance is critical. These threads provide tolerance classes such as 6g for external threads and 6H for internal, promoting interchangeability in global supply chains.[62] For power transmission, ISO 2903 (replacing the legacy DIN 103) outlines trapezoidal threads (Tr) with a 30° flank angle, designed for leadscrews in machinery like lathes and presses. These threads feature pitches from 2 mm to 12 mm and a basic height of , where is the pitch, providing efficient axial movement under high loads; a representative example is Tr16x4, with a 16 mm nominal diameter and 4 mm pitch. In automotive and general machinery, they enable smooth linear actuation while minimizing backlash.[63][64] DIN EN 10226 specifies Whitworth-form pipe threads with a 55° flank angle, including both tapered (Rp/R) and parallel (G) variants for pressure-tight joints in pipelines and fittings. These are widely used in European plumbing and industrial fluid systems, where the 1:16 taper on external threads ensures sealing without additional gaskets in many applications.[65][66] Specialized variants include DIN 405 for knuckle threads (Rd) with a 30° rounded profile, applied in fire hose couplings and food/pharmaceutical equipment for hygienic, dirt-resistant sealing. Buttress forms under DIN 513 provide coarse threads with an asymmetric profile (approximately 3°/30° flanks) for spindle presses and lifting mechanisms, offering superior one-directional load resistance in heavy machinery. Similarly, DIN 2781 defines fine buttress threads at 45° for hydraulic presses, preventing explosive forces in high-pressure environments like industrial cylinders, with applications in food and pharmaceutical sealing due to their robust, low-friction design.[67][68][69][70][71][72]Active Asian and Other Regional Standards
Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS)
The Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) for screw threads encompass a range of specifications that support Japan's manufacturing sector, integrating metric, inch-based, and pipe thread forms to facilitate compatibility in diverse applications. Established under the Industrial Standardization Law of 1949, these standards were developed to unify post-war industrial practices and align with international norms where feasible, promoting precision in assembly for high-tech industries.[73] Key JIS specifications for general-purpose threads include the metric series under JIS B 0205, which defines ISO-aligned coarse and fine profiles for diameters from M1 to M100. This standard adopts the 60° thread angle and pitch series similar to ISO 261, such as M10 with a coarse pitch of 1.5 mm or fine pitch of 1.25 mm, ensuring interchangeability in mechanical fasteners. For inch-based threads, JIS B 0206 covers unified coarse series (UNC) and JIS B 0208 addresses unified fine series (UNF), mirroring ASME B1.1 forms like 1/4-20 UNC or 10-32 UNF, adapted for Japanese production in legacy equipment.[74][75][76] Pipe threads are governed by JIS B 0202 for parallel forms (PF) and JIS B 0203 for tapered forms (PT), both featuring a 55° thread angle and sizes from 1/8 inch to 4 inches with threads per inch (TPI) ranging from 28 to 14. The PT series, equivalent to BSPT in profile, provides self-sealing through taper interference, while PF uses parallel engagement often with gaskets. Tolerances across these standards follow classes like 6g for external metric threads and 6H for internal, per JIS B 0209, matching ISO 965 for fit precision.[77][78] These JIS threads find widespread use in electronics for fine metric variants in compact assemblies, automotive components where unified inch forms ensure compatibility with global suppliers, and plumbing systems relying on PT/PF for pressure-tight joints in fluid lines. Post-1949 revisions emphasized high-precision tolerances to support Japan's advancements in robotics and semiconductors, with ongoing updates to harmonize with ISO profiles for export-oriented manufacturing.[79][80][81]GOST Russian Standards
GOST standards for thread systems originated in the Soviet Union as part of a national standardization effort beginning in 1925, with key thread specifications developed through the mid-20th century and updated into the 1990s to support industrial manufacturing across the region.[82] These standards remain prevalent in Russia and Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries for compatibility in legacy equipment, even as many sectors adopt ISO equivalents.[83] GOST threads encompass metric screw threads for general-purpose fastening and inch-based pipe threads for fluid conveyance, emphasizing robustness for heavy-duty applications. The primary metric screw thread profile is defined by GOST 9150-2002, which specifies a symmetrical 60° V-shaped form for diameters ranging from M1.6 to M300, ensuring basic interchangeability in cylindrical threads.[83] Coarse and fine pitch series are outlined in GOST 8724-2002, covering nominal diameters from 1 mm to 600 mm with pitches starting from 0.2 mm for fine threads up to 8 mm for coarse ones in larger sizes; for example, the coarse series uses M12×1.75, while a fine variant is M12×1.25.[84] These metric threads share the same fundamental height and flank angles as ISO metric standards but incorporate regional adaptations in preferred size selections for Soviet-era machinery.[85] Pipe threads under GOST follow a Whitworth-derived 55° profile, with GOST 6357-81 governing cylindrical (parallel) variants for sizes from 1/16 inch to 6 inches, covering parallel external (G) and internal (Rp) threads, suitable for non-pressurized or gasket-sealed connections akin to ISO 228.[86] Tapered pipe threads, covered by GOST 6211-81, provide self-sealing for pressurized systems, with pitches ranging from 28 threads per inch for small diameters to 11 for larger ones.[87] Tolerances for GOST metric threads are specified in GOST 16093-2004, employing classes such as 6h for external (bolts) and 6H for internal (nuts) up to diameters of 600 mm, with deviations tailored to Russian manufacturing practices that may differ slightly from ISO 965 in maximum material limits for enhanced fit reliability in harsh environments.[84] Thread height remains consistent with ISO at 0.54127 times the pitch for the basic profile. For pipe threads, tolerances align with cylindrical or tapered forms to ensure leak-proof assembly when paired with sealants. GOST threads find extensive use in Russia's heavy industry, including machinery and construction, where metric coarse pitches support structural bolting; oil and gas sectors rely on pipe threads for pipeline fittings and wellhead connections; and fine pitches serve precision applications like aerospace components in CIS aviation.[88] Despite partial transitions to ISO in modern exports, GOST specifications persist in domestic and regional production for their proven durability in extreme conditions.[89]Special Purpose and Industry-Specific Threads
Acme and Trapezoidal Threads
Acme and trapezoidal threads are specialized screw thread forms designed primarily for power transmission applications, such as linear motion in machinery, where high load capacity and efficient force conversion are essential. These threads feature a trapezoidal profile that provides greater thread strength compared to V-shaped threads, making them suitable for transmitting axial loads in both directions. Unlike fastening threads, they prioritize motion over clamping, with the Acme variant originating in the United States and trapezoidal threads standardized internationally for metric systems.[90][91] In the United States, Acme threads are governed by the ASME B1.5 standard, which specifies a 29° included thread angle and supports general-purpose and centralizing applications. This standard covers threads with pitches ranging from coarse (as low as 4 threads per inch for larger diameters) to finer options up to 16 threads per inch for smaller sizes, with common designations like 1/2-10 Acme indicating a 1/2-inch major diameter and 10 threads per inch. The centralizing variant includes limited clearance at the major diameters of both internal and external threads to facilitate alignment during assembly.[92][93][90] Internationally, trapezoidal threads are defined by ISO 2901, which establishes the basic and design profiles for metric trapezoidal screw threads with a 30° included angle. This standard applies to threads with nominal diameters from 8 mm upward and pitches typically ranging from 1.5 mm to 12 mm, such as Tr 10 × 2 for a 10 mm diameter and 2 mm pitch. It emphasizes precision in profile dimensions to ensure compatibility in global manufacturing.[94][95] The primary differences between Acme and trapezoidal threads lie in their regional origins and slight geometric variations: Acme threads use inch-based sizing for general industrial use, while trapezoidal threads employ metric dimensions for higher precision in international applications. The 1° difference in flank angle (29° for Acme versus 30° for trapezoidal) results in minor variations in load distribution and ease of machining, with both supporting centralizing designs that incorporate clearance to reduce binding under load. Acme threads are often favored in heavy-duty American machinery, whereas trapezoidal threads align with metric standards for broader compatibility.[7][91][96] Key dimensions for Acme threads include a basic thread height of 0.5 times the pitch (h = 0.5p) and a flat width at the crest and root of 0.3707 times the pitch (F = 0.3707p). For example, in a 1"-5 Acme thread (pitch p = 0.2 inches), the basic pitch diameter for the external thread is 0.9 inches. These proportions ensure robust engagement while allowing for tolerances specified in ASME B1.5. Trapezoidal threads follow similar proportional heights but are scaled to metric pitches per ISO 2901.[90][97][98] Acme and trapezoidal threads are widely used in leadscrews for machine tools, vises, jacks, and linear actuators, where they convert rotary motion to linear motion under heavy loads. Their efficiency in power transmission typically ranges from 20% to 40%, depending on lubrication, materials, and load conditions, which is lower than rolling-element screws but sufficient for applications prioritizing durability over speed.[99][5][100] For multi-start configurations, the lead L is calculated as L = n × p, where n is the number of thread starts and p is the pitch; single-start threads (n = 1) are most common, but multi-start designs increase speed at the cost of load capacity.[101][102]Buttress and Knuckle Threads
Buttress threads feature an asymmetric profile designed for applications involving high unidirectional axial loads, where one flank is nearly perpendicular to the axis for efficient load transmission, while the other provides clearance. The American National Standard ASME B1.9 specifies inch-series buttress threads with a 7° load flank angle and a 45° clearance flank angle, along with a basic thread height of 0.6 times the pitch.[103] In metric systems, DIN 513 defines buttress threads with a 3° pressure flank and a 30° non-stressed flank, optimized for unilateral force.[104] DIN 2781 further standardizes a 45° buttress variant for heavy-duty uses, emphasizing single-start configurations.[72] The thread height for buttress forms is typically 0.6p, where p is the pitch, allowing substantial engagement while minimizing material stress. For example, a 1"-6 buttress thread (1-inch nominal diameter, 6 threads per inch, p ≈ 0.1667 inches) has a basic height of approximately 0.1 inches, with major diameter tolerances around 0.975-1.000 inches for external threads and pitch diameter near 0.900 inches.[105] These dimensions ensure robust engagement under compression. Knuckle threads, in contrast, employ a rounded profile to facilitate easy assembly and sealing, with DIN 168 specifying a form for glass container finishes where the external thread has a 30° included angle and the internal a 60° for compatibility.[106] The rounding radius ranges from 0.125p to 0.25p, promoting smooth engagement without sharp edges.[107] Buttress threads find primary use in clamps and presses, where they withstand heavy axial forces in one direction, such as in screw jacks for lifting or hydraulic mechanisms for material compression.[108] Their design offers efficiency comparable to square threads for power transmission while being easier to manufacture than fully perpendicular forms.[109] Knuckle threads are employed in bottle closures and pharmaceutical packaging, enabling tamper-evident seals on jars with minimal torque for user-friendly opening.[106] The rounded profile in sizes from M26 to M110 reduces galling risks during repeated assembly, enhancing durability in sealing applications.[110]| Thread Type | Standard | Flank Angles | Basic Height | Example Size | Key Application |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Buttress (Inch) | ASME B1.9 | 7° load / 45° clearance | 0.6p | 1"-6 (p=0.1667") | Clamps, presses |
| Buttress (Metric) | DIN 513 | 3° pressure / 30° clearance | 0.6p | M20x2 | Unidirectional loads |
| Buttress (Heavy) | DIN 2781 | 45° | 0.6p | Up to 1250 mm dia. | Hydraulic presses |
| Knuckle | DIN 168 | 30° external / 60° internal (rounded) | Varies with p | GL28 (≈M28) | Bottles, pharma jars |
Obsolete Thread Standards
Early American and Sellers Threads
The Sellers thread standard, proposed by American engineer William Sellers in April 1864 during a presentation at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, marked a pivotal development in early American screw thread standardization.[14] This system featured a symmetrical 60-degree V-shaped thread profile, simplifying the earlier British Whitworth 55-degree design to facilitate easier manufacturing and interchangeability in U.S. industry.[14] Endorsed by a special committee of the Franklin Institute on December 15, 1864, it included systematic thread pitches based on fractional diameters from 1/4 inch to 6 inches, with flats at the crest and root each measuring 1/8 of the pitch for improved durability and machinability.[14] The thread depth was calculated as 0.649519 times the pitch, providing a balanced form that became foundational for subsequent American standards.[111] By the late 19th century, the Sellers thread had evolved into the United States Standard (USS) thread, primarily a coarse series used extensively in post-Civil War manufacturing for machinery, locomotives, and typewriters.[14] This variant focused on coarse pitches, such as 20 threads per inch (TPI) for a 1/4-inch diameter and 13 TPI for a 1/2-inch diameter, aligning closely with what would later resemble Unified Coarse (UNC) series but without finer options initially.[111] Promoted through collaborations with the U.S. Army, Navy, and railroads, it standardized production across American workshops, reducing the chaos of incompatible threads that had plagued earlier industrial efforts.[14] Widespread adoption occurred by the 1880s, enabling efficient assembly in diverse applications from firearms to steam engines.[14] In 1924, the National Screw Thread Commission formalized the Sellers profile as the American National thread standard, incorporating both coarse and fine series while retaining the 60-degree angle and flat crest/root design.[112] This update, detailed in the commission's reports, specified pitches like 8 TPI for 1-inch diameters in coarse threads and 14 TPI for fine, with dimensions such as a basic major diameter of 1.0000 inches and pitch diameter of 0.9188 inches for an 8-TPI example.[111] The standard emphasized interchangeability for federal services and general machinery, influencing industries through the 1930s and 1940s via handbooks like NIST's H28.[113] These early standards persisted in legacy equipment into the mid-20th century but were rendered obsolete by the adoption of the Unified Thread Standard on November 18, 1948, through an international accord to enhance compatibility with British and Canadian systems.[114] The transition addressed wartime needs for unified production among Allied nations, phasing out the American National form in favor of a refined 60-degree profile for modern applications.[114] Despite obsolescence, remnants of Sellers-derived threads remain in historical machinery, underscoring their role in establishing U.S. manufacturing precision after the Civil War.[14]| Example Thread Size | Series | Threads per Inch | Pitch (inches) | Basic Depth (inches) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1/4 inch | Coarse | 20 | 0.0500 | 0.0325 |
| 1/2 inch | Coarse | 13 | 0.0769 | 0.0500 |
| 1 inch | Coarse | 8 | 0.1250 | 0.0812 |
| 1/4 inch | Fine | 28 | 0.0357 | 0.0232 |
British Association and Whitworth Variants
The British Association (BA) screw thread standard, designated BS 93, was developed for precision applications in small-scale engineering, particularly instruments and clocks. Originating from the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1884, it adapted earlier Swiss designs by Marc Thury for miniature threads, with formal standardization by the British Standards Institution (BSI) as BS 93:1919 and later revisions including BS 93:1951 and BS 93:2008.[115][116] The BA system features a thread angle of 47.5 degrees and rounded crests and roots with a radius approximately equal to 2/11 of the pitch, providing a shallower thread depth suited to delicate components. Pitches are calculated using the formula mm, where is the gauge number from 0 (largest, approximately 6 mm major diameter) to 16 (smallest, approximately 0.8 mm), with threads per inch ranging from approximately 25 TPI for 0 BA to 134 TPI for 16 BA.[116][117] Tolerances for external and internal threads are specified in classes, emphasizing close fits for sizes 0 to 16 BA, though the standard advises against its use in new designs in favor of metric ISO threads.[115] By 1966, the BSI declared the BA thread obsolete, replacing it with international metric standards, though it persists in legacy scientific and model engineering contexts. As of 2025, BA threads continue to be used and produced for legacy applications in model engineering and scientific instruments.[118][119] In contrast, the Whitworth thread, the foundational British screw standard, was devised by engineer Sir Joseph Whitworth in 1841 as the world's first national thread system, later codified as British Standard Whitworth (BSW) under BS 84.[116] This 55-degree flank angle thread, with rounded crests and roots (radius 0.1373 times the pitch), offers greater strength than 60-degree American counterparts due to reduced stress concentrations at the thread roots. The thread depth is approximately 0.6403 times the pitch, supporting coarse pitches for general use, such as 20 TPI for 1/4-inch diameter.[116][120] BS 84:2007 specifies limits and tolerances for parallel Whitworth threads in uncoated and coated forms, covering diameters from 1/8 inch to 6 inches.[50] Whitworth variants include the British Standard Fine (BSF), which refines the pitch for higher precision (e.g., 3/16 inch to 4 1/4 inches, with finer TPI like 26 for 1/4 inch), and British Standard Pipe (BSP) threads for sealing applications in plumbing and gases, featuring parallel (BSPP) or tapered (BSPT) forms with pitches like 11 TPI for 1/2-inch pipes. A truncated Whitworth series, introduced for manufacturing efficiency, reduces crest height while maintaining interchangeability via specialized gauges. These variants were integral to British machinery, railways, and heavy engineering until the mid-20th century.[50][116][121] Though BS 84 remains active for legacy compatibility, Whitworth threads are now obsolete for new designs, supplanted by Unified and ISO metric standards post-1948 international agreements. As of 2025, Whitworth threads continue to be used and produced for legacy applications in model engineering and historical restorations.[50]| Feature | BA Threads (BS 93) | Whitworth Variants (BS 84) |
|---|---|---|
| Thread Angle | 47.5° | 55° |
| Primary Use | Precision instruments, small screws (<1/4 inch) | General engineering, pipes, machinery (1/8–6 inches) |
| Pitch Calculation | mm (n=0–16) | Coarse/fine series (e.g., 20 TPI for 1/4 inch BSW, 26 TPI for 1/4 inch BSF) |
| Obsolescence | Declared 1966; not for new designs | Active for legacy (2007 revision); obsolete for new metric use |
| Key Strength | Shallow depth for delicate fits | Rounded roots for shear resistance |