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Mathematical tile
Mathematical tile
Mathematical tile
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Mathematical tiles nailed to wooden planks, overlapped and mortared to give the appearance of a brick surface

Mathematical tiles are tiles which were used extensively as a building material in the southeastern counties of England—especially East Sussex and Kent—in the 18th and early 19th centuries.[1] They were laid on the exterior of timber-framed buildings as an alternative to brickwork, which their appearance closely resembled.[2] A distinctive black variety with a glazed surface was used on many buildings in Brighton (now part of the city of Brighton and Hove) from about 1760 onwards, and is considered a characteristic feature of the town's early architecture.[1][3] Although the brick tax (1784–1850) was formerly thought to have encouraged the use of mathematical tiles, in fact the tiles were subject to the same tax.[4]

Name

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The precise origin of the name "mathematical" is unknown.[5][6][7] Local historian Norman Nail ascribes it to the "neat geometric pattern" produced by the tiles.[8] John W. Cowan suggests it means "exactly regular", an older sense of "mathematical" which is now rare.[9] Other attributive names include "brick", "geometrical", "mechanical", "rebate", "wall", or "weather" tiles.[5] According to Christopher Hussey, "weather tile" is an earlier more general term, with the true "mathematical tile" distinguished by its flush setting.[10] In 18th-century Oxford "feather edge tile" was used.[11] While "mathematical tile" is now usual, Nail considered it a "pretentious" innovation, preferring "brick tile" as an older and more authentic name.[12]

Usage and varieties

[edit]
9 Pool Valley, Brighton has a black tile façade of 1794.

The tiles were laid in a partly overlapping pattern, akin to roof shingles. Their lower section—the part intended to be visible when the tiling was complete—was thicker; the upper section would slide under the overlapping tile above and would therefore be hidden. In the top corner was a hole for a nail to be inserted. They would then be hung on a lath of wood, and the lower sections would be moulded together with an infill of lime mortar to form a flat surface.[13] The interlocking visible surfaces would then resemble either header bond or stretcher bond brickwork.[1][2][14][15] Mathematical tiles had several advantages over brick: they were cheaper,[1] easier to lay than bricks (skilled workmen were not needed),[16] and were more resistant to the weathering effects of wind, rain and sea-spray, making them particularly useful at seaside locations such as Brighton.[17]

Various colours of tile were produced: red, to resemble brick most closely; honey; cream; and black. Brighton, the resort most closely associated with mathematical tiles, has examples of each. Many houses on the seafront east of the Royal Pavilion and Old Steine, for example on Wentworth Street, have cream-coloured tiles,[3] and honey-coloured tiles were used by Henry Holland in his design for the Marine Pavilion—forerunner of the Royal Pavilion.[16] Holland often used mathematical tiles in his commissions, although he usually used blue Gault clay to make them.[18]

A 1987 count of surviving mathematical tiles in English counties found the most in Kent (407 buildings), followed by Sussex (382), Wiltshire (50), Surrey (47), and Hampshire (37 including the Isle of Wight).[19]

Black glazed tiles

[edit]
Black glazed mathematical tiles—as seen here at 44 Old Steine—are a characteristic feature of Brighton's 18th-century architecture.

The black glazed type is most closely associated with the Brighton's early architecture:[1] such tiles had the extra advantage of reflecting light in a visually attractive way.[20] Black mathematical tiles started to appear in the 1760s, soon after the town began to grow in earnest as its reputation as a health resort became known.[21] When Patcham Place, a mid 16th-century house in nearby Patcham (now part of the city of Brighton and Hove), was rebuilt in 1764, it was clad entirely in the tiles.[22] Royal Crescent, Brighton's first unified architectural set piece and first residential development built to face the sea, was faced in the same material when it was built between 1799 and 1807.[23] When Pool Valley—the site where a winterbourne drained into the English Channel—was built over in the 1790s, one of the first buildings erected there was a mathematical tiled two-storey shop. Both the building (now known as 9 Pool Valley) and the façade survive.[24] All three of these have Grade II* listed status,[25] indicating that in the context of England's architecture they are "particularly important ... [and] of more than special interest".[26] Other examples can be seen at Grand Parade—the east side of Old Steine, developed haphazardly with large houses in a variety of styles and materials in the early 19th century;[27][28] York Place, a fashionable address when built in the 1800s;[27] and Market Street in The Lanes, Brighton's ancient core of narrow streets.[3]

Lewes, the county town of East Sussex, has many buildings clad with mathematical tiles in black and other colours. These include the Grade I-listed Jireh Chapel in the Cliffe area of the town which is clad in red mathematical tiles and dark grey slate. The timber-framed chapel was built in 1805.[29] Elsewhere, a study in 2005 identified 22 18th-century timber-framed buildings (mostly townhouses) with mathematical tiles of various colours.[30] Examples are the semi-detached pair at 199 and 200 High Street,[30] the small terrace at 9–11 Market Street, 33 School Hill (an old building with a mid-18th century renewed façade), and the Quaker meeting house of 1784.[31]

Examples from Brighton

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See also

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Notes

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mathematical tile

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from Grokipedia
Mathematical tiles are small, flat clay tiles shaped to mimic the appearance of bricks, used primarily as an external cladding material on buildings in during the 18th and 19th centuries. These tiles, typically measuring about 8.75 inches by 6.25 inches and half an inch thick, were fixed to timber-framed walls using pegs inserted through pre-drilled holes, allowing older structures to be given a fashionable brick-like facade without the expense of actual . The term "mathematical tile" has an unclear origin, possibly referring to the tiles' straight edges or the precise geometric arrangement required for their installation, though it was a popular choice in southern counties like , , and for updating to align with contemporary brick styles. Particularly prevalent from the late 17th to early 19th centuries, mathematical tiles enabled builders to clad irregular or timber-based walls in a uniform, durable manner, often glazed in red or black to replicate fired bricks. Their use declined with the rise of mass-produced bricks and changing architectural tastes, but surviving examples—such as those on Regency-era houses in —highlight their role in regional building traditions, where they were applied in patterns that concealed the underlying frame while providing weatherproofing. Architects like Batty Langley praised their aesthetic appeal in the , noting how they created "most beautiful" facades with only subtle reveals at wall returns betraying the technique. Today, mathematical tiles are recognized as a distinctive element of , with conservation efforts focused on preserving their installation methods and materials.

History

Origins

Mathematical tiles emerged in early 18th-century as an evolution of 17th-century tile-hanging practices, which involved hanging flat clay tiles vertically on buildings in southeastern regions to protect wattle-and-daub from . These earlier techniques, common in areas like and since the late 1600s, gradually shifted toward more uniform, brick-like arrangements influenced by London's fashionable Flemish bond , allowing timber structures to emulate costly red-brick facades without full reconstruction. This adaptation reconciled traditional with emerging Georgian aesthetics, using shaped tiles to create the illusion of solid at a of the expense. The earliest documented use of mathematical tiles dates to 1724, on a house in Westcott, , where initialed and dated tiles confirm their application to reface a timber-framed structure. This innovation quickly spread to nearby counties, with early instances appearing in and on modest buildings seeking a modern brick appearance; for example, properties in , , were refaced between 1713 and 1788 using these tiles to transform medieval timber frames into Georgian-style fronts. The Flemish bond influence, rooted in continental bricklaying traditions imported to , likely contributed to the tiles' precise, interlocking patterns that mimicked authentic masonry bonds. By the mid-18th century, such applications had become a practical solution for affordable architectural upgrades in southern 's rural and market-town settings.

Peak popularity

The use of mathematical tiles experienced a significant surge beginning around the late , particularly in the southeastern counties of and , where they offered an economical means to clad timber-framed structures and mimic the appearance of fashionable facades. This rise was influenced by broader economic pressures, including the British introduced in and extended until , which increased the cost of traditional and prompted builders to seek affordable alternatives, though mathematical tiles themselves were subject to similar taxation. Their adoption aligned with the period's architectural preferences for cost-effective yet aesthetically pleasing materials, allowing for the modernization of older buildings without substantial expense. Mathematical tiles became emblematic of Georgian and , commonly applied to the exteriors of middle-class townhouses in growing urban centers, where they provided a durable, brick-like finish that enhanced visual uniformity and prestige. In these regions, the tiles facilitated rapid amid expanding populations and trade, transforming vernacular timber buildings into more contemporary brick-imitating designs. Prominent architects embraced this material; for instance, Samuel Wyatt employed mathematical tiles in his neoclassical designs at in during the late 18th century and at Belmont House near in in 1792, likely for reasons of economy while achieving a refined appearance. Statistical trends underscore the height of this popularity, with nearly a thousand buildings identified across featuring mathematical tiles, of which approximately 85 percent are concentrated in , , and , reflecting the era's urban expansion and regional building practices. In , a key Regency-era , the tiles were especially prevalent, adorning over 100 structures by and contributing to the area's distinctive seaside aesthetic amid swift from and development.

Decline and later uses

The use of mathematical tiles began to wane from the onward, primarily due to the repeal of the brick tax in , which significantly reduced the cost of s and eliminated the economic incentive for alternative claddings like tiles. Concurrently, advances in industrial production made bricks more affordable and widely available, diminishing the appeal of tiles as a cheaper substitute for facades. Additionally, architectural tastes shifted toward renderings and other lightweight claddings, which offered greater flexibility for decorative elements in Regency and Victorian buildings. Despite this decline, mathematical tiles saw sporadic revival during the , particularly in restoration projects aimed at updating older timber-framed structures and in rare new constructions up to the late 1870s. For instance, they were employed in refurbishments that sought to maintain a Georgian aesthetic, such as adaptations extending earlier 18th-century techniques into 19th-century contexts. In the , mathematical tiles found niche applications in heritage-style new builds and repairs, spurred by growing conservation movements from the that emphasized authentic period detailing in historic districts. Examples include the reinstatement of original tiles on Grade II* listed properties, like the 2017 restoration of Cotterlings in , where they were used to repair and relocate period features. As of 2025, mathematical tiles remain confined to specialist suppliers for period restorations and conservation work, with no evidence of widespread revival in ; firms like Aldershaw continue to produce them primarily for maintaining historic buildings in regions such as and .

Design and construction

Origin of the name

The term "mathematical tile" emerged in the late within architectural contexts to describe a specialized clay used for cladding timber-framed buildings in a way that imitated . The precise origin of the name remains unknown, though it likely stems from the tiles' requirement for exact geometric calculation in their overlaps and alignments, producing straight, regular courses that replicate the uniform appearance of facades without the undulating curvature inherent in traditional . Early documentation of the term appears in architectural treatises and writings from the onward, where the emphasis was placed on the engineering precision enabling this deceptive yet structurally sound cladding method, prioritizing technical accuracy alongside visual harmony. This nomenclature distinguishes mathematical tiles from simpler plain tile hanging, as the former incorporates molded edges and rear pegs for nailing to laths in overlapping layers, ensuring a flush, brick-like surface that requires deliberate dimensional consistency for seamless integration across the facade.

Materials and manufacturing

Mathematical tiles are constructed from fired clay, primarily sourced from local Wealden deposits in , which yield a red-firing body suitable for durable building applications. The clay, often from formations like the Wadhurst Clay within the Wealden Group, provides the raw material for these tiles, ensuring compatibility with regional production and aesthetic qualities mimicking . The manufacturing process begins with hand-forming or pressing the prepared clay into wooden molds to achieve the desired brick-like profile on the front face, while incorporating nibs or lugs on the reverse for secure hanging. These molds account for natural contraction during drying and firing, maintaining dimensional consistency. The shaped tiles are then air-dried to reduce moisture content before stacking in for bisque firing, which hardens the body. Historical examples from late 18th-century demonstrate this labor-intensive method, resulting in tiles approximately 8.75 inches (222 mm) long by 6.25 inches (159 mm) wide and 0.5 inches (13 mm) thick, with pre-drilled holes or nibs for peg attachment. Variations in the process include the application of glazes prior to firing for enhanced weather resistance and coloration; lead glazes produce smooth, glossy finishes in shades like or , while black glazed tiles imitate the appearance of salt-glazed s. Unglazed tiles, fired to a matte red finish, were common for standard use where aesthetic imitation of plain was sufficient. focused on uniform thickness and minimal warping, achieved through skilled molding and controlled atmospheres to prevent defects like cracking. Historical production was concentrated in potteries, including facilities in , , and later operations like Aldershaw Handmade Tiles, which continue traditional methods using local clays. These centers leveraged abundant Wealden clay resources to supply the regional demand for economical facade materials during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Installation techniques

Mathematical tiles were typically fixed to the exterior of timber-framed buildings to provide a durable, weather-resistant facade that mimicked . The primary installation method involved hanging the tiles on horizontal wooden battens or laths, secured with or wooden pegs passed through pre-formed holes or nibs on the reverse side of each . These battens, often made of or , were nailed across the studs of the timber frame or plugged into underlying , creating a supportive grid for the tiles. In some cases, tiles were additionally bedded into lime putty or mortar to enhance and weatherproofing, particularly on softer infills like wattle-and-daub or lath-and-plaster walls. To achieve a convincing brick-like appearance, tiles were laid in overlapping courses that simulated the regular joints and bonding patterns of brick . Each tile featured a lip or on the reverse for hooking onto the battens, with horizontal overlaps ensuring the lower edges of upper tiles concealed the fixings and joints below, while vertical overlaps aligned to form straight, mortar-like lines between courses. Vertical counter-battens were sometimes incorporated behind the horizontal ones on flat or near-vertical elevations to promote , prevent buildup, and facilitate drainage, thereby reducing the risk of timber decay. Joints between tiles could be pointed with lime-based mortar to further replicate the look and seal of , though this was not always necessary due to the tight interlocking design. Installation required precise nailing—typically two fixings per tile—to avoid sagging or bulging, a common challenge arising from uneven timber or exposure to damp conditions that could rot the supporting battens over time. or putty was applied using trowels for and , ensuring a flexible seal that accommodated minor structural movement in timber frames. For corners, windows, or doorways, wooden strips or painted boards were often used to mask edges and maintain the seamless illusion, as the curved profile of tiles made right-angle wrapping difficult. Adaptations for different wall types included direct application over lath-and-plaster infills via boarding, or bedding onto existing substrates with driven into mortar beds for added stability. In coastal or exposed locations, the tiles' glazed variants provided enhanced resistance to salt-laden air, contributing to long-term weatherproofing without additional underlays in traditional setups. Overall, these techniques leveraged the tiles' lightweight nature compared to full , making them suitable for timber structures while preserving structural integrity.

Varieties

Unglazed tiles

Unglazed mathematical tiles are typically crafted from or buff clay, resulting in a porous that absorbs unless protected by or rendering. This makes them susceptible to environmental damage, such as growth and color fading over time without regular maintenance. Despite these vulnerabilities, their matte finish and straight edges allow for a seamless approximation of when installed. These tiles were particularly cost-effective compared to actual bricklaying, offering a cheaper alternative for mimicking high-quality , and were more commonly employed in rural settings or during early adoption phases of the technique. They proved advantageous for updating older timber-framed structures into more fashionable Georgian styles, providing weather-tightness while concealing underlying framing. However, their limitations include reduced durability in harsh conditions, like exposure to salty coastal air, where glazed variants were preferred instead. In applications, unglazed mathematical tiles were primarily used on main elevations of 18th-century houses in , such as those in and , including examples like Edward Jacob’s house at 76 Preston Street and the Fleur de Lis Museum. They were nailed to wooden laths in overlapping courses to create the illusion of solid walls on sheltered or less exposed facades, such as rear elevations in some rural properties. Historically, unglazed tiles dominated usage before 1800, serving as the standard form during the peak introduction and spread of the technique in the early 1700s. They were the most common in non-coastal regions like inland , , and , which account for about 85% of England's nearly 1,000 known instances, with alone holding about 45%.

Black glazed tiles

Black glazed mathematical tiles emerged in the late as a distinctive variant of the traditional tile-hanging technique, gaining prominence during the Georgian period in , particularly in . These tiles were developed as a cost-effective way to imitate the appearance of high-quality salt-glazed on timber-framed structures, allowing for the modernization of older without the expense of full brick replacement. The tiles were crafted from clay, with the characteristic black coloration achieved through the incorporation of dust or liquid slip during production, resulting in a , glossy finish after firing. This glazing process created a vitreous surface that offered superior weather protection compared to unglazed alternatives, making them well-suited to exposed coastal conditions. The tiles featured a molded lip and large pegs on the reverse side, enabling secure nailing to wooden laths or battens in overlapping courses that mimicked the regular coursing of . In usage, black glazed mathematical tiles were predominantly applied to the front elevations and bay windows of buildings in seaside towns such as , where they contributed to a cohesive aesthetic by pairing the dark tiles with light-colored mortar joints. A notable early example is the Royal Crescent in , constructed around 1796–1805 by developer James Otto, who employed these tiles to achieve a refined, reflective appearance that enhanced the uniformity and elegance of the facade. Their lightweight nature also facilitated installation on unsupported bays and timber frames, promoting their widespread adoption from the 1780s to the 1820s. Production occurred in local Sussex kilns, where the clay tiles were molded, glazed, and fired to produce durable, interlocking units suitable for external cladding. The technique emphasized precision in overlapping to ensure weather-tightness, though challenges like forming right-angled corners often required supplementary painted boarding.

Coloured and patterned variants

While unglazed and black glazed mathematical tiles dominated practical applications, rarer coloured variants introduced decorative elements using yellow or green glazes derived from metallic oxides, primarily iron, to achieve subtle hues on the tile surface. and grey glazes were also produced in the late 18th and early 19th centuries to match fashionable colors. These glazes were applied via slip techniques before a high-temperature firing, ensuring color and against . Patterned variants featured impressed designs that replicated Flemish bond layouts or motifs, creating the illusion of intricate when laid in overlapping courses on laths. Such texturing added ornamental depth, particularly on elevations where visual variety was desired beyond monochrome facades. In mid-19th-century examples, these tiles appeared in London-adjacent suburbs like and , often as accents on Regency-style villas, such as yellow-glazed facades at 56 Bedford Place. Green-glazed instances were even scarcer, noted in similar restorations for subtle highlighting. Production required extra firing stages to stabilize the metallic colors, elevating costs and restricting use to , high-end projects rather than widespread adoption.

Notable examples

Brighton and Hove

Mathematical tiles have been a defining feature of 's since the 1760s, with numerous buildings—primarily clad in the distinctive black glazed variety—contributing to the town's rapid expansion as a fashionable spa resort during the Royal Pavilion era. These tiles were particularly prevalent on timber-framed and flint-cored structures, providing a durable and cost-effective facade that mimicked expensive while protecting against coastal . By the late , their use had become integral to the urban fabric, appearing on over a hundred surviving examples that reflect the speculative building boom driven by visitors seeking the sea air's health benefits. Iconic instances include the Royal Pavilion itself, constructed and refaced in 1787 under the direction of architect Henry Holland with cream-coloured mathematical tiles to create a unified neoclassical appearance. These examples highlight how mathematical tiles blended practicality with aesthetic refinement in Brighton's Regency-era skyline. In , mathematical tiles served as cladding over flint or timber cores, enabling swift in the burgeoning and allowing builders to meet demand without importing costly bricks—especially advantageous under the 1784 brick tax. Local production played a key role, with Brighton-area potteries and tile works supplying the glazed variants that became synonymous with the locale, fostering through specialized craftsmanship and supporting the of skilled laborers in the ceramics trade. As of 2025, these tiles are preserved within the broader cultural framework of the Living Coast Biosphere Reserve, which encompasses and Hove's urban heritage and emphasizes sustainable conservation of architectural features amid climate pressures. In October 2025, renewed and expanded the reserve. Ongoing efforts by and local authorities ensure their maintenance on listed structures, safeguarding this vernacular tradition against modern development.

Other locations in England

In , mathematical tiles appear prominently on notable structures such as Belmont House near , a neo-classical country house designed by Samuel Wyatt in 1792 and clad in buff-coloured gauged tiles for weather resistance. The also features a high concentration of these tiles, with at least 138 surviving examples recorded in urban settings like Buttermarket and Burgate Street as of 1981, often applied to timber-framed buildings to mimic . Further examples occur in and . The earliest documented use nationwide is at a house in Westcott, Surrey, dated 1724, where tiles were hung on the facade to create a brick-like appearance. In , , numerous townhouses incorporate mathematical tiles in varied forms, including red clay variants on structures like the Grade I-listed Jireh Chapel, blending them with local brickwork for aesthetic enhancement. Beyond these southeastern counties, mathematical tiles feature on select buildings in other regions, such as in , a Palladian country house also designed by Samuel Wyatt and faced with tiles in the late 18th century. In , the 1794 refurbishment of the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, by Henry Holland included mathematical tiles encasing the exterior to achieve a , elegant finish. Uses in remain rare, reflecting the material's strong association with southern architectural traditions. Overall, mathematical tiles are concentrated in the southeast, with nearly 860 surviving structures identified across as of a 1987 survey, approximately 85% located in , , and . No more recent comprehensive surveys were identified as of 2025.

Architectural significance

Role in

Mathematical tiles served a pivotal aesthetic function in Georgian and Regency building design by creating an illusion of uniform on cheaper substrates like or , thereby achieving the symmetrical proportions and linear grid patterns emblematic of Palladian influences. This mimicry allowed architects to mask irregular or structures beneath a refined, brick-like facade that reflected light effectively, enhancing the visual elegance of elevations without the expense of genuine . Functionally, these tiles offered lightweight cladding providing robust weather resistance, particularly in coastal areas prone to dampness. Their design, with overlapping flanges and pegs for secure fixing, made them adaptable to curved surfaces or irregular walls, enabling seamless integration into diverse structural forms and extending the lifespan of underlying frameworks. In the social context of Regency society, mathematical tiles democratized architectural grandeur, allowing the emerging to emulate the status symbols of elite brick-built homes at a fraction of the cost, thus symbolizing upward mobility and refined taste amid the Brick Tax of 1784. This accessibility reinforced class aspirations, positioning such facades as markers of prosperity in urban settings. Their adoption enhanced in spa towns, where they blended harmoniously with local techniques to produce cohesive, regionally distinctive styles that balanced functionality with ornamental restraint. Various unglazed and glazed variants contributed to this versatility, though their primary impact lay in elevating modest buildings to align with broader Georgian aesthetic ideals.

Preservation and conservation

Mathematical tiles face several preservation challenges, including weathering and frost damage that cause cracking and spalling, as well as delamination resulting from incompatible modern repairs using cement-based mortars instead of lime. In coastal areas like , where many examples exist, structures are additionally threatened by erosion from sea waves and saltwater exposure, exacerbating deterioration of the underlying timber frames. A notable recent incident occurred in February 2025, when the facade of a building in collapsed due to dampness affecting the timber support behind mathematical tiles, underscoring the need for timely maintenance. Conservation techniques emphasize the use of matching reproduction tiles produced by specialist firms, such as Aldershaw Tiles, which craft custom pieces to replicate original colors and profiles based on historical analysis. While is increasingly applied in heritage restoration for precise replication of architectural elements, its adoption for mathematical tiles remains limited but promising for accurate mold creation in small-batch production. has supported these efforts through repair grants available since the 1980s, funding targeted interventions to sustain at-risk structures. Numerous buildings featuring mathematical tiles across benefit from listed status, providing legal protections under the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990. Nearly 1,000 examples have been identified across , concentrated primarily in southern counties. In the 2020s, guidelines stress reversible interventions, such as lime-based and non-invasive fixings, to allow future access to original fabric without permanent damage. Recent projects include the 2022 restoration of Guildford House, where handcrafted mathematical tiles replaced weathered sections to maintain the facade's integrity. These initiatives highlight a shift toward environmentally conscious conservation, balancing historical authenticity with modern goals.

References

  1. https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co49867/two-red-clay-mathematical-tiles
  2. https://favershamlife.org/mathematical-tiles/
  3. https://www.canterbury-archaeology.org.uk/mathematical-tiles
  4. https://www.mybrightonandhove.org.uk/topics/building-materials/building-materials-in-brighton-and-hove-4
  5. https://rth.org.uk/building-regency-houses/building-crafts-skills/mathematical-tiles
  6. https://www.ryenews.org.uk/news/business/what-are-mathematical-tiles
  7. https://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/hangingtiles/hangingtiles.htm
  8. https://britishbricksoc.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/BBS_67_1996_March.pdf
  9. https://georgiangroup.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/The_Georgian_Group_Guides_N2_Brickwork-s.pdf
  10. https://www.cutmytax.org/post/thick-as-a-brick-the-stupidities-of-the-brick-tax
  11. https://www.construction-physics.com/p/bricks-and-the-industrial-revolution
  12. https://www.mybrightonandhove.org.uk/topics/building-materials/building-materials-in-brighton-and-hove-7
  13. https://www.aldershaw.co.uk/mathematical_tiles
  14. https://ddarchitects.co.uk/cotterlings-restoration-ditchling/
  15. http://britishbricksoc.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/BBS_144_2020_Jan.pdf
  16. https://www.heritagecrafts.org.uk/recipients/aldershaw-tiles-tile-makers/
  17. https://tilesoc.org.uk/tile-gazetteer/sussex.html
  18. https://britishbricksoc.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/BBS_109_2009_March.pdf
  19. http://www.diverse.4mg.com/math_tiles.htm
  20. https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1380680
  21. https://www.mybrightonandhove.org.uk/places/placeland/royal_pavilion/royal-pavilion-17
  22. https://www.westsussex.gov.uk/media/2104/brightonhove_eus_report_maps.pdf
  23. https://unesco.org.uk/our-sites/biospheres/brighton-and-lewes-downs-the-living-coast
  24. https://www.brighton-hove.gov.uk/news/2025/world-recognition-expanded-living-coast-unesco-biosphere-sussex
  25. https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1343978
  26. https://www.surreyarchaeology.org.uk/system/files/Surrey%2520History%25202-5.pdf
  27. https://friends-of-lewes.org.uk/resources/publications/the-building-materials-of-lewes/
  28. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13556207.2021.1949141
  29. https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/conservation-bulletin-01/conservationbulletin01/
  30. https://www.facebook.com/SPAB1877/videos/1363584571657816/
  31. https://www.relogicresearch.com/service-category/3d-scanning-and-reverse-engineering/
  32. https://historicengland.org.uk/advice/technical-advice/buildings/principles-of-repair-for-historic-buildings/
  33. https://guildford-dragon.com/photo-feature-additional-repairs-for-guildford-house-mathematical-tiles/
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