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Metriorhynchus
Metriorhynchus
Metriorhynchus
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Metriorhynchus
Temporal range: Kimmeridgian, 157–150 Ma
Partial holotype rostrum (MHNG V-2232) of M. brevirostris as illustrated in 1824
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Clade: Archosauria
Clade: Pseudosuchia
Clade: Crocodylomorpha
Suborder: †Thalattosuchia
Family: †Metriorhynchidae
Genus: †Metriorhynchus
von Meyer, 1832[2]
Species:
†M. brevirostris
Binomial name
†Metriorhynchus brevirostris
(Holl, 1828) vide Young et al., 2020[1]
Synonyms

Metriorhynchus is an extinct genus of marine crocodyliform that lived in the oceans during the Late Jurassic. The type species, M. brevirostris was named in 1829 as a species of Steneosaurus before being named as a separate genus by the German palaeontologist Christian von Meyer in 1832.[2] The name Metriorhynchus means "moderate snout", and is derived from the Greek Metrio- ("moderate") and -rhynchos ("snout").

Discovery and species

[edit]

Fossil specimens referrable to Metriorhynchus are known from Kimmeridgian (Late Jurassic) deposits of France.[1]

Valid species

[edit]

Only one valid species is recognized today, the type species M. geoffroyii (now called M. brevirostris).[1] "Metriorhynchus" hastifer and "M." palpebrosus are generically distinct from the Metriorhynchus type species, with hastifer being recovered as a geosaurine.[3][4] Species in this genus were traditionally classed into two skull groups: longirostrine (long, narrow jaws) and brevirostrine (short, broad jaws). However, most of brevirostrine species have been transferred to the genera Purranisaurus and Suchodus.[5][6] Metriorhynchus superciliosus was also shown to be generically distinct from the type species, M. brevirostris, and now has its own genus Thalattosuchus.[1]

Life reconstruction of Metriorhynchus brevirostris

The genera Purranisaurus and Suchodus have been considered junior synonyms of Metriorhynchus.[7] Recent phylogenetic analyses however, do not support the monophyly of Metriorhynchus, as believed during the 1860s-2010.[8][9][10][1]

Eudes-Deslongchamps (1867–69) recognized four Callovian species of Metriorhynchus: M. superciliosus, M. moreli, M. blainvillei, and M. brachyrhynchus.[11] Later, Andrews (1913) considered there to be seven valid species: M. superciliosus, M. moreli, M. brachyrhynchus, M. durobrivensis, M. cultridens, M. leedsi and M. laeve.[12] However, Adams-Tresman (1987), using linear morphometrics, could only distinguish between the two skull groups, so she found there to be two species from the Oxford Clay, M. superciliosus and M. brachyrhynchus.[13] Vignaud (1997) however, considered there to be three Callovian species: M. superciliosus, M. brachyrhynchus and M. leedsi,[14] and a 2022 study describing a new metriorhynchid specimen advocated returning to this taxonomic system, considering Gracilineustes and Thalattosuchus junior synonyms of Metriorhynchus.[15]

Unnamed species

[edit]

Fragmentary remains attributed to Metriorhynchus are known from South America during the Bajocian[16] and Bathonian (both Middle Jurassic).[17] However, phylogenetic analysis has shown that these species cannot be referred to Metriorhynchus.[5][18][1]

Description

[edit]

Metriorhynchus was a thalattosuchian, a group of marine crocodylomorphs. It was a member of the Metriorhynchidae, a group of thalattosuchians with a tail anatomy which indicates that they had a tail fluke similar to that of a shark. Unlike many other pseudosuchians, they did not have extensive osteoderms covering the body. Instead it appears that they had smoother skin similar to other marine reptiles like plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs.[19] Metriorhynchids also had a hip anatomy conducive for live birth and evidence from the related Dakosaurus does show that they did this.[20] Metriorhynchus can be distinguished from other metriorhynchids in that the three front teeth get bigger from front to back, with the first being round and the third more oval-shaped. The jaws have a narrow point where different parts of the upper jaw meet, and there are at least 13 teeth before the palatine bones start. The teeth are mostly oval-shaped, but after the third one, they become rounder. The front part of the nasal bones stops near the eighth tooth, and unlike most animals, it has a single large external nostril instead of two separate ones. The opening for the nostrils begins behind the first tooth and ends just past the last one in the front section of the jaw.[1] It was about 3 meters (9.8 feet) in body length.[21]

Paleoecology

[edit]

Metriorhynchus was a carnivore. One fossil shows it has eaten the gill apparatus of the giant fish Leedsichthys. The idea of Metriorhynchus attacking weak Leedsichthys individuals has been speculated to be the case in the past such as in the BBC and Discovery Channel documentary Sea Monsters.[22][23]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Metriorhynchus

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from Grokipedia
Metriorhynchus is an extinct of thalattosuchian crocodyliform within the Metriorhynchidae, characterized by its fully aquatic, pelagic lifestyle during the Middle to epochs, approximately 166 to 145 million years ago. These marine reptiles inhabited epeiric seas and open oceans, primarily in what is now , with the Metriorhynchidae also known from , , and . Adapted for a life entirely at , Metriorhynchus lacked osteoderms, possessed salt-excreting glands for , and featured streamlined bodies with paddle-like limbs, a hypocercal fluke for propulsion, and scaleless, soft skin to reduce drag. Reaching lengths of about 2.5 to 3 meters, they were agile swimmers and occupied roles as mid- to upper-level predators in marine ecosystems. The genus was first described in the mid-19th century, with the M. geoffroyi (often synonymized with M. brevirostris) named from European specimens, and subsequent taxonomic revisions, including those as recent as 2024, have recognized only M. brevirostris as valid, with other formerly assigned reclassified into separate genera such as Thalattosuchus and Suchodus based on cranial morphology. Their featured conical, triangular teeth with fine serrations (microziphodonty), enabling them to grasp slippery prey, while gastric contents reveal a diet dominated by like Leedsichthys and occasional scavenging of such as bivalve shells. Paleobiological studies indicate niche partitioning among metriorhynchids, with Metriorhynchus likely employing suction-feeding or rapid strikes to capture evasive marine vertebrates, contributing to the diverse trophic structure of seas.

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Metriorhynchus was established by the German palaeontologist Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer in to describe the type species M. geoffroyi, based on a partial rostrum specimen from the (Upper ) deposits near in , . The name derives from the words metrios (μέτριος), meaning "moderate," and rhynchos (ῥύγχος), meaning "" or "beak," alluding to the moderately elongated rostrum of the animal relative to more extreme long-snouted forms among contemporaneous thalattosuchians. This naming marked an early recognition of Metriorhynchus as a fully marine crocodyliform, distinct from terrestrial or semi-aquatic crocodilians; von Meyer initially placed it within Teleosauridae, a group of long-snouted thalattosuchians, but it was subsequently reassigned to , erected by Leopold Fitzinger in 1843 to encompass highly specialized pelagic crocodylomorphs.

Classification and Phylogeny

Metriorhynchus was initially misclassified in the , with early species such as M. brevirostris described as part of the teleosaurid genus Steneosaurus before being recognized as a distinct thalattosuchian group adapted to a fully pelagic . By the mid-, following detailed anatomical studies, it was established as the of the family , characterized by extreme marine adaptations that distinguished it from the more semi-aquatic teleosaurids. Metriorhynchus is placed within the family , superfamily Metriorhynchoidea, and order Crocodylia in the broad sense, as part of the larger clade . In a 2020 taxonomic revision, the genus was restricted to the M. geoffroyi and M. hastifer, with other former species (such as M. superciliosus) reassigned to new genera like Thalattosuchus; cladistic analyses position this restricted Metriorhynchus as a basal member of , within the subfamily Metriorhynchinae, sister to more derived genera such as (in Geosaurinae). However, recent studies indicate that the traditional broader concept of Metriorhynchus may be paraphyletic, with overlapping diagnostic traits among specimens suggesting the need for further taxonomic revision; for instance, a well-preserved specimen exhibits features shared across multiple metriorhynchid genera, complicating generic boundaries. Key synapomorphies of Metriorhynchus and its close relatives within include the complete loss of osteoderms, which enhanced body flexibility for , and the development of a hypocercal tail fluke, providing in open marine environments—adaptations that mark the transition to a fully aquatic lifestyle beyond that of basal thalattosuchians. These traits, combined with paddle-like limbs and reduced antorbital fenestrae, underscore Metriorhynchus's role as an early example of extreme thalattosuchian specialization.

Species

Valid Species

Metriorhynchus brevirostris is the only species currently recognized as valid within the genus Metriorhynchus, following taxonomic revisions that have reclassified other former congeners to distinct genera such as Thalattosuchus and Torvoneustes. This dates to the stage of the , approximately 157–150 million years ago, and is known exclusively from European deposits. It is diagnosed by a short, robust rostrum with 18–20 maxillary teeth per side and a smooth prefrontal-palatine contact, features that distinguish it from longirostrine metriorhynchids. The , MHNG V-2232, consists of a partial cranial rostrum collected from near in the Département de , Haute-Normandie, . Based on comparisons with better-preserved referred specimens, adult individuals of M. brevirostris attained total body lengths of 3–3.5 meters. Fossils attributable to M. brevirostris have been reported primarily from and , with the English material deriving from equivalents.

Reclassified and Unnamed Forms

Several species previously assigned to Metriorhynchus have been reclassified into distinct genera within following comprehensive taxonomic revisions that highlighted morphological distinctions from the type species M. brevirostris. For example, Metriorhynchus superciliosus was transferred to the newly erected genus Thalattosuchus superciliosus based on unique cranial proportions (such as a longer, more slender rostrum), conical with minimal mediolateral compression, and postcranial adaptations like reduced osteoderms that align it more closely with basal metriorhynchids rather than the derived Metriorhynchus lineage. Similarly, Metriorhynchus brachyrhynchus was reclassified as Suchodus brachyrhynchus, reflecting differences in short, broad cranial morphology, robust suited for crushing, and specialized limb proportions indicative of a separate evolutionary trajectory within the family. Metriorhynchus casamiquelai was assigned to Purranisaurus casamiquelai, justified by divergent cranial features (e.g., expanded supratemporal fenestrae) and postcranial elements (such as elongated hindlimbs) that suggest affiliation with a geosaurine subgroup rather than Metriorhynchus proper. These reclassifications stem from phylogenetic analyses incorporating both cranial and postcranial data, which demonstrate that former Metriorhynchus species form non-monophyletic assemblages and better resolve as separate genera, emphasizing the polyphyletic nature of the original genus concept. However, some researchers have questioned these revisions, arguing for limitations in distinguishing species based on current criteria. In addition to reclassified taxa, several unnamed or indeterminate forms attributed to Metriorhynchus or close relatives persist in the fossil record, often due to fragmentary preservation. Notable examples include partial skeletons from the Vaches Noires cliffs in , , such as a juvenile rostrum (MNHN 1893-6) that exhibits metriorhynchid affinities but lacks diagnostic features for species-level identification. A 2022 study by Le Mort et al. describes material from the same region, including a relatively complete but disarticulated skeleton identified as Metriorhynchus aff. superciliosus, suggesting potential undescribed diversity in Middle Jurassic metriorhynchids and highlighting ongoing taxonomic challenges, though placement remains provisional pending additional specimens. These reclassifications and indeterminate remains underscore the ongoing taxonomic instability in Metriorhynchidae, largely attributable to the fragmentary nature of many fossils, which complicates precise generic assignments and highlights the need for integrated morphological and phylogenetic approaches to resolve historical misattributions.

Description

Cranial Anatomy

The skull of Metriorhynchus exhibits a moderately elongated rostrum resulting in a streamlined, low-profile morphology suited to its fully aquatic lifestyle. This rostrum is narrow and slightly convex dorsally, lacking the sculpturing or osteoderms seen in related taxa, with a basicranial to rostrum ratio indicating a mesorostrine condition that varies among . The orbits are notably large and laterally positioned, which facilitated enhanced underwater. The external nares are positioned far forward on the premaxillae, anterodorsally oriented and divided by a midline , positioned posterior to the first premaxillary alveolus. Dentition in Metriorhynchus is characterized by numerous, closely spaced, conical teeth bearing fine serrations (microziphodonty) on the carinae, adapted for grasping rather than tearing prey. Premaxillary tooth counts are typically low (3–5 per side), while maxillary and dentary rows feature higher numbers, ranging from 20–30 teeth per side, with irregular alveolar spacing and no enlarged caniniforms; anterior teeth may be slightly procumbent and mediolaterally compressed. Tooth morphology varies heterodontically along the jaw, with smaller, subcircular posterior teeth compared to the larger anterior ones, and replacement teeth often curved lingually. Sensory adaptations include hypertrophied salt glands located within the nasal capsules, evidenced by teardrop-shaped depressions on the internal surfaces of the prefrontal and lacrimal bones, which supported by excreting excess salt ingested in . The secondary , formed by contributions from the premaxillae, maxillae, and , is present but reduced in extent relative to terrestrial crocodylians, extending only to the mid-rostrum and featuring a single midline palatine process without extensive midline fusion. In comparison to teleosaurids, the of Metriorhynchus lacks an armored covered in osteoderms and instead displays a smoother, unsculpted surface with larger, more lateral orbits and a higher count indicative of piscivorous specialization, contrasting the broader, more robust crania of teleosaurids adapted for durophagy.

Postcranial

The postcranial of Metriorhynchus exhibited pronounced adaptations for a fully aquatic lifestyle, particularly in the axial and appendicular regions, facilitating efficient and maneuverability in marine environments. The vertebral column comprised approximately 20–25 presacral vertebrae, including an elongated series of cervical and dorsal elements that allowed for flexible undulation during ; the neural spines were notably reduced in height compared to terrestrial crocodylomorphs, contributing to a dorsoventrally flattened, streamlined body profile that minimized hydrodynamic drag. Caudal vertebrae extended into a specialized tail region, with the total vertebral count around 40–45 in some specimens, supporting powerful lateral movements. The was highly modified for paddling, with fore- and hindlimbs transformed into broad, flipper-like structures. The and were shortened and laterally flattened, featuring robust proximal heads and reduced distal articulations to enhance rigidity under water resistance; hyperphalangy was evident in both the manus and pes, with extra phalanges (up to 10 or more per digit in related metriorhynchids) increasing flipper surface area for lift and . These adaptations, combined with the absence of osteoderms, underscored the loss of terrestrial capabilities in favor of pelagic locomotion. The tail terminated in a hypocercal fluke, characterized by an expanded ventral lobe formed by around the distal caudal vertebrae, which bent downward to generate thrust via strong underlying caudal musculature; this configuration, powered by myomeric contractions along the elongated , provided the primary mechanism, akin to that in ichthyosaurs. Rare impressions reveal a smooth, scaleless covering the postcranial body, composed of uniform, fibrous without dermal scales or scutes, further reducing drag and enhancing streamlining for sustained swimming. Overall, Metriorhynchus attained a total body length of about 3 meters, with inferred body mass ranging from to kg based on skeletal proportions and volumetric reconstructions from complete specimens.

Discovery

History of

The genus Metriorhynchus was first established by the German paleontologist Hermann von Meyer in 1832, based on fossils from the Formation of , initially recognizing the short-snouted M. brevirostris (previously described as a species of Steneosaurus in 1829) as the and distinguishing it from longer-snouted forms like M. geoffroyii. In the mid-19th century, contributed significantly to early studies by describing additional material from the Formation of , including skulls and postcranial elements that highlighted the marine adaptations of these crocodylomorphs, though he initially classified them within broader teleosaurid groups. In the early , Eberhard Fraas established the Thalattosuchia in 1902, encompassing Metriorhynchus and related fully aquatic crocodylomorphs, emphasizing their pelagic lifestyle and distinguishing them from semi-aquatic teleosaurids through features like paddle-like limbs and flukes, based on German specimens. Research progressed slowly thereafter, with limited new discoveries until the , when French paleontologist Sylvain Wenz described well-preserved skulls of M. superciliosus from the of , providing key insights into cranial variation and confirming the genus's presence in the . Advancements in the included the application of computed tomography (CT) scanning to metriorhynchid skulls in the 2010s, enabling non-destructive visualization of internal braincase and neurosensory structures, as demonstrated in studies of Thalattosuchus and related forms that refined understandings of sensory adaptations. Taxonomic revisions have been pivotal, with Young and Steel's 2007 reassessment of historical specimens addressing nomenclatural issues, followed by comprehensive overhauls in Young et al. (2021) that reduced the number of valid Metriorhynchus species through phylogenetic analyses and synonymized many junior names based on fragmentary material. More recently, Le Mort et al. (2022) described an exceptionally complete Metriorhynchus aff. superciliosus specimen from , underscoring gaps in the European fossil record and the need for further integration of new finds into global phylogenies. In 2025, Séon et al. analyzed stable isotopes from Metriorhynchus aff. superciliosus specimens from to assess body temperature and , providing new insights into their fully aquatic . Throughout its research history, Metriorhynchus has posed challenges due to the predominantly fragmentary of specimens, leading to frequent synonymies and taxonomic instability, as many historical were based on isolated bones prone to misinterpretation amid incomplete stratigraphic contexts.

Known Specimens

The known specimens of Metriorhynchus consist mainly of isolated cranial and postcranial elements from marine formations in , with fragmentary material also reported from . The type specimen of the type M. brevirostris is MHNG V-2232, a partial rostrum collected from Jurassic deposits and now housed at the Muséum d'histoire naturelle de Genève in ; this fragment served as the basis for the genus' original description and highlights the short-snouted morphology characteristic of the . Additional material from the includes the neotype of M. brachyrhynchus (NHMUK PV R3700), an almost complete skull from the Lower Formation (Aulacostephanus eudoxus Zone) near , which provides key details on cranial proportions and . French specimens are among the most informative, with a notable juvenile (MNHN 1893-6) from the Marnes de Dives Formation at Vaches Noires cliffs, , offering insights into ontogenetic changes in snout shape and orbital region. A more complete example is MPV 2010.3.610, an associated including a partial lacking premaxillae, , atlas-axis complex, cervical and dorsal vertebrae, sacral and caudal vertebrae, and a right , also from Vaches Noires; this specimen, assigned to Metriorhynchus aff. superciliosus, represents the most extensive postcranial material available and demonstrates the elongated tail and reduced limb adaptations for aquatic locomotion. Such specimens from have recently been used in 2025 studies to investigate strategies. Most specimens of Metriorhynchus are preserved as isolated skulls, partial mandibles, or disarticulated postcrania, reflecting the taphonomic biases of lagoonal and open-marine environments where was common before burial; complete skeletons are absent from the record, limiting holistic reconstructions of body proportions. Rare exceptions include skin impressions preserved in the fine-grained , such as those on metriorhynchid indet. specimens (e.g., NKMB-P-Watt06/508 from nearby Wattendorf), which reveal a scaleless, fibrous with transverse folds and no osteoderms, supporting fully marine adaptations. No fully articulated individuals have been discovered, though ongoing excavations in as of 2025 have yielded promising fragmentary material potentially referable to Metriorhynchus, including additional cranial elements that may address gaps in juvenile morphology.

Paleoecology

Distribution and Habitat

Metriorhynchus lived during the Middle to epochs, with its temporal range spanning from the to the stages (approximately 166 to 145 million years ago), based on valid species and referred material. Fossils attributable to the genus are known from (including , , , and ), (such as and ), and (such as ), where they occur in deposits representing epicontinental seas fringing the and other marine environments. These crocodyliforms occupied shallow subtropical marine habitats characterized by warm, epeiric seas with elevated levels, including lagoonal environments and areas supporting reefs. Such settings, as preserved in formations like the of and equivalent units in , , indicate depositional environments ranging from subtidal shelves to restricted coastal basins. Metriorhynchus coexisted in these ecosystems with diverse marine reptiles, including ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs, within a broader adapted to fully pelagic conditions. Its specialized marine adaptations, such as salt-excreting glands and a streamlined body, facilitated life in these open-water, high- realms.

Diet and Behavior

Metriorhynchus was primarily piscivorous, with a diet supplemented by scavenging and occasional consumption of soft-bodied . Fossil evidence from stomach contents reveals scales and bones as dominant remains, alongside belemnite guards indicative of prey. A well-preserved specimen from the Formation contains fragments of the giant pachycormid Leedsichthys (estimated full raker length ~75 mm from fragments of 3.7–5.8 cm), as well as small shells and interfanuncular fragments, suggesting opportunistic feeding on carrion rather than active predation on this massive filter-feeder (8–12 m in length). Earlier gastric residues also include bones, broadening the inferred dietary range to include aerial vertebrates that may have fallen into marine environments. The feeding mechanism of Metriorhynchus was adapted for capturing elusive aquatic prey, featuring a longirostrine and thin, conical teeth suited for piercing and gripping slippery . These teeth lack serrations or robust crushing structures, aligning with a strategy for holding rather than tearing or durophagy, consistent with piscivory observed in modern analogs like gharials. As an epipelagic , Metriorhynchus likely employed tail-powered strikes to lunge at prey in open water, leveraging its streamlined, fully aquatic body for sudden acceleration without reliance on . Behavioral inferences portray Metriorhynchus as a solitary hunter patrolling open marine habitats, with no evidence suggesting social grouping or . Direct interactions with prey are evidenced by bite marks on a plesiosaurian carcass, indicating scavenging on submerged remains alongside competitors like hybodont . Ecologically, Metriorhynchus occupied a mid-trophic niche, potentially serving as prey for larger predators such as due to its 3–4 m body length, while exhibiting niche overlap with other metriorhynchids like Dakosaurus through differentiation in prey size and foraging depth. This opportunistic lifestyle, combining active piscivory and scavenging, facilitated coexistence in the diverse seas.

References

  1. https://doi.org/10.3390/fossils2010002
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  4. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2024.2427096
  5. https://doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa092
  6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annpal.2022.102539
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  11. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0054275
  12. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/20662191.pdf
  13. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4185291/
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  21. https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-pdf/200/2/547/60794642/zlad165.pdf
  22. https://doc.rero.ch/record/16372/files/PAL_E3527.pdf
  23. https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ar.23462
  24. https://sciencepress.mnhn.fr/sites/default/files/articles/pdf/comptes-rendus-palevol2025v24a17.pdf
  25. https://treatment.plazi.org/id/5e272c7fff85-ffd7-1ae2-fccf7137f888
  26. https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=171409
  27. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0753396922000052
  28. https://www.mdpi.com/2813-6284/2/1/2
  29. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.1986.10011647
  30. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378391210_The_Diet_of_Metriorhynchus_Thalattosuchia_Metriorhynchidae_Additional_Discoveries_and_Paleoecological_Implications
  31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7878(03)80037-8
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